Quiz 6: Generalization, Discrimination Learning, and Concept Formation Memory Module

Jasmine quickly learned that she needed to use different techniques to calm her second child than those that had worked with her first child. This is an example of: A) generalization. B) discrimination. C) sensory preconditioning. D) negative patterning.

As a child, Hunter had a favorite pet, a black furry cat that made him very happy. Based on the concept of a generalization gradient, which type of cat would be MOST likely to make Hunter happy now? A) a dark gray cat B) a yellow cat C) a white cat D) a calico cat

Discrete-component representations provide a good description of: A) the generalization gradient. B) how animals learn negative patterning. C) learning about highly dissimilar stimuli. D) configural learning in categorization.

A distributed representation is one in which: A) stimuli are represented by overlapping pools of nodes or stimulus elements. B) nodes or neurons responding to physically similar stimuli are near each other. C) a unique node is used to represent each individual stimulus feature. D) all of the nodes detect unique combinations of cues.

In a topographic representation: A) each possible stimulus is represented by its own unique node. B) stimuli are represented by overlapping pools of nodes. C) neighboring cortical regions respond to similar stimuli. D) weights are changed according to the Rescorla-Wagner rule.

The mediation of behavior through responses to cues in the world is known as: A) stimulus sampling theory. B) distributed representation. C) discrimination learning. D) stimulus control.

In the peak shift effect, discrimination training results in a maximum response to: A) the nonrewarded stimulus. B) the rewarded stimulus. C) a stimulus value that is closer to the nonreinforced stimulus value. D) a stimulus value that is far away from the nonreinforced stimulus value.

Sienna learned that many vegetables tend to be green in color. When she later learned in school that vegetables are healthy, she inferred that foods that are green are healthy. That she made this inference is an example of: A) acquired equivalence. B) sensory preconditioning. C) discrimination training. D) negative patterning.

Preston enjoys listening to piano music, and he enjoys listening to violin music, but he dislikes hearing both instruments played together in a duet. This is an example of: A) discrimination training. B) negative patterning. C) sensory preconditioning. D) acquired equivalence.

A detector for a unique configuration of two cues such as a certain tone and light is known as: A) similarity-based generalization. B) acquired equivalence. C) negative patterning. D) configural nodes.

To enable a network to accomplish negative patterning, one can: A) use combinatorial explosion. B) include consequential regions. C) include shared elements. D) use configural nodes.

The primary sensory cortices are involved in determining: A) which stimuli deserve expanded cortical representation. B) what consequence has occurred following a response. C) what information has been received in other sensory modalities. D) what type of behavioral response should be made to a stimulus.

Lesions to the hippocampus lead to: A) impaired performance on sensory preconditioning tasks but not on acquired equivalence tasks. B) impaired performance on acquired equivalence tasks but not on sensory preconditioning tasks. C) impaired performance on both acquired equivalence and sensory preconditioning tasks. D) normal performance on both acquired equivalence and sensory preconditioning tasks.

The hippocampal region seems to be important for: A) learning a stimulus-response association. B) determining what information is allowed to enter memory. C) maintaining a topographic map of sensory stimuli. D) encouraging cortical remapping to enhance the response to a stimulus.

If one tells a person with schizophrenia that both Julie and Stephanie like apples more than oranges, and Julie also likes carrots more than peppers, what would the patient have the MOST trouble with? A) remembering that Julie prefers apples B) remembering that Julie prefers carrots C) inferring that Stephanie prefers carrots D) inferring that Stephanie prefers peppers

The transfer of past learning to new situations and problems is known as: A) negative patterning. B) acquired equivalence. C) generalization. D) discrimination.

Lucy was bitten by a small white dog and now she has a fear of all dogs, regardless of their size or color. This is an example of: A) negative patterning. B) acquired equivalence. C) generalization. D) discrimination.

Martha studied hard for her math test and found that she learned some study habits that helped her study for her physics test. This is an example of: A) generalization. B) discrimination. C) sensory preconditioning. D) negative patterning.

Larry is visiting his grandmother and cooking dinner for her. Since his grandmother has a different model of microwave oven than his, he has learned that he needs to push a different sequence of buttons on his grandmother's microwave oven when he wants to use it for cooking. This is an example of: A) generalization. B) discrimination. C) sensory preconditioning. D) negative patterning.

Howard can tell from the way his baby cries whether she is hungry, needs changing, is sick, or is tired. This is an example of: A) generalization. B) discrimination. C) sensory preconditioning. D) negative patterning.

The process by which one learns about new categories usually based on common features is known as: A) negative patterning. B) acquired equivalence. C) generalization. D) concept formation.

Freda once became sick after eating pepperoni pizza. Based on the idea of a generalization gradient, which food would she be MOST likely to avoid in the future? A) spaghetti B) broccoli C) ice cream D) sausage pizza

If a generalization gradient were a flat horizontal line, it would mean that: A) very little generalization has occurred. B) a lot of discrimination has occurred. C) a lot of generalization has occurred. D) both generalization and discrimination have occurred.

Suppose a person reinforces a rat for responding to an 800-Hz tone and then observes that its response to a novel 750-Hz tone is about 50 percent of its response to the 800-Hz tone. The lower response to the 750-Hz tone occurs because the rat: A) cannot tell the difference between the two tones, so it responds by guessing. B) expects a 50-percent probability that its response will lead to a reward. C) can hear the 750-Hz tone about half as well as the 800-Hz tone. D) has learned to discriminate between the tones; therefore, it makes different responses to them.

The set of all stimuli that have the same consequence as the training stimulus is called the: A) configural node. B) topographic representation. C) receptive field. D) consequential region.

A set of stimuli in the world that share the same consequence as the stimulus whose consequence is already known is referred to as: A) negative patterning. B) consequential region. C) the generalization gradient. D) learned discrimination.

The shape of generalization gradients shows that two very similar stimuli are _____, while two very different stimuli are _____. A) expected to produce similar consequences; expected to produce different consequences B) expected to produce different consequences; expected to produce similar consequences C) difficult to tell apart; easy to tell apart D) easy to tell apart; difficult to tell apart

_____ representations use a unique node to represent each individual stimulus. A) Discrete-component B) Distributed C) Topographic D) Consequential

The form in which information about stimuli is encoded within a model or brain is: A) discrete-component representation. B) stimulus representation. C) the generalization gradient. D) the configural node.

When a discrete-component representation is used, there is: A) a lot of generalization. B) no generalization. C) no discrimination. D) no discrimination or generalization.

If one trains a discrete-component model to respond to a blue light, how will it respond to a blue-green light? A) It will respond as strongly as it does to the blue light. B) It will respond less strongly than it does to the blue light. C) It will respond more strongly than it does to the blue light. D) It will not respond at all to the blue-green light.

In a _____ representation, stimuli are represented by overlapping sets of nodes or stimulus elements. A) discrete-component B) distributed C) topographic D) consequential

The theory that states that the probability of a response will increase or decrease depending on the outcome that follows is: A) stimulus sampling theory. B) the law of effects. C) the connectionist model. D) distributed representation.

An automatic filtering based on information from a large number of other people's past behaviors is called: A) distributed representations. B) collaborative filtering. C) the generalization gradient. D) stimulus sampling theory.

The process by which websites use a form of generalization to predict what one would buy is called: A) discrete-component representation. B) distributed representations. C) the generalization gradient. D) collaborative filtering.

In a _____ representation, nodes or neurons responding to physically similar stimuli are near each other. A) discrete-component B) distributed C) topographic D) consequential

The discrete-component model and the distributed model differ in that only the: A) discrete-component model includes input nodes. B) distributed model includes input nodes. C) discrete-component model includes an internal representation layer. D) distributed model includes an internal representation layer.

If one trains a distributed model to respond to a blue light and then presents it with a blue-green light, it responds to the blue-green light because: A) both lights activate the same input nodes. B) the weights from the input nodes to the internal representation layer are fixed. C) both lights activate some of the same nodes in the internal representation layer. D) the blue-green input node activates the blue input node.

Which model(s) can account for generalization? A) only discrete-component models B) only distributed models C) both discrete-component and distributed models D) neither discrete-component nor distributed models

In the network model, each stimulus activates an input node that is connected by a layer of fixed weights to several nodes. This is known as: A) stimulus sampling theory. B) internal representation. C) the connectionist model. D) distributed representation.

The mediation of behavior through responses to cues in the world is known as: A) stimulus sampling theory. B) distributed representation. C) discrimination learning. D) stimulus control.

Sleep experts routinely advise good sleep hygiene that consist of: A) soothing auditory stimulation. B) promoting wakeful behavior. C) limiting one's bedroom stimulus. D) reading a book to promote relaxation.

If two stimuli differ within a single dimension-for example, tone frequency-the paradigm is referred to as: A) extradimensional discrimination. B) intradimensional discrimination. C) the discrete-component model. D) the generalization gradient.

Stimuli that differ across multiple dimensions for example tones and lights are known as: A) extradimensional discrimination. B) intradimensional discrimination. C) the discrete-component model. D) the generalization gradient.

Compared with the generalization gradient that is observed when no discrimination training is given, the generalization gradient that is observed after discrimination training is: A) shallower. B) steeper. C) the same. D) shallower or steeper, depending on the stimulus.

In the peak-shift effect, the maximum response during generalization is: A) to the nonreinforced stimulus. B) to the reinforced stimulus. C) shifted toward the nonreinforced stimulus. D) shifted away from the nonreinforced stimulus.

Suppose one trains a dog to come running for food when one whistles a 60 dB whistle and also trains the same dog to NOT come running when one whistles a 70 dB whistle. According to the peak-shift effect, which whistle would then lead to the dog's fastest running? A) 50 dB B) 60 dB C) 70 dB D) 80 dB

According to Spence, the peak-shift effect occurs because the: A) observed response is given by the difference between the excitatory and inhibitory generalization gradients. B) organism ignores the excitatory generalization gradient. C) organism ignores both the excitatory and the inhibitory generalization gradients. D) observed response is given by the inhibitory generalization gradient.

A training procedure in which difficult discrimination is learned by starting with an easy version of the task and proceeding to incrementally harder versions as the easier ones are mastered is referred to as _____ learning. A) consequential B) discrimination C) errorless discrimination D) integral

If parents use training wheels to aid their child in learning to ride a two-wheeler, they have adopted a variation of _____ learning. A) consequential B) discrimination C) errorless discrimination D) integral

Errorless discrimination learning does have some significant drawbacks. While it produces _____ and _____ learning of discriminations, later studies have shown that it is rigid and inflexible. A) frustration; weak B) lasting; essential C) rapid; strong D) slow; tedious

Training in which presentation of two stimuli together as a compound results in a later tendency to generalize what is known about one of these stimuli to the other is known as: A) consequential learning. B) sensory preconditioning. C) error discrimination learning. D) integral learning.

What is the name of the phenomenon in which prior presentation of a compound stimulus results in a later tendency for learning about one stimulus of the compound to generalize to the other stimulus? A) acquired equivalence B) sensory preconditioning C) discrimination training D) negative patterning

Chloe learned that babies who cry a lot also have trouble sleeping. When she later learned that babies who have trouble sleeping tend to be highly intelligent, she inferred that babies who cry a lot are also highly intelligent. This relationship is an example of: A) acquired equivalence. B) sensory preconditioning. C) discrimination training. D) negative patterning.

Suppose one pairs a light and a tone in the first phase of a sensory preconditioning paradigm. If one then pairs just the light with a food pellet, such that the light elicits a salivation response, the tone presented alone will: A) elicit no response. B) elicit salivation only if the light is presented at the same time. C) suppress salivation. D) also elicit salivation.

Gavin often gets punched by Tyler, the school bully. Gavin is also afraid of Tyler's twin brother, Tristan, since Tristan looks just like Tyler. This is an example of: A) similarity-based generalization. B) meaning-based generalization. C) negative patterning. D) sensory preconditioning.

Dylan and Aaron both enjoy foreign films. If a person later learns that Dylan also enjoys riding dirt bikes, the person may infer that Aaron also enjoys riding dirt bikes. This is an example of: A) acquired equivalence. B) sensory preconditioning. C) discrimination training. D) negative patterning.

According to the text, the compound exposure in phase 1 establishes an association between the tone and light. In phase 2, the light becomes associated with the air puff, and this learning is directly transferred to the tone, too. This is referred to as: A) similarity-based generalization. B) meaning-based generalization. C) acquired equivalence. D) stimulus generalization.

If one uses a red light and a blue light as stimuli in a negative-patterning task, one would reward responding: A) to one light but not the other. B) only when both lights are on at the same time. C) only to a purple light. D) to either light alone but not when both are on at the same time.

Negative patterning is difficult to learn because it requires the organism to suppress its tendency to: A) make a motor response. B) discriminate. C) categorize. D) generalize.

Aidan plays well with his brother and with his sister, but, when Aidan tries to play with both of them together, the three of them just end up arguing. This is an example of: A) discrimination training. B) negative patterning. C) sensory preconditioning. D) acquired equivalence.

A detector for a unique configuration of two cues such as a certain tone and light is known as: A) similarity-based generalization. B) acquired equivalence. C) negative patterning. D) configural nodes.

In a single-layer network using a discrete-component representation, negative patterning: A) is represented by assigning a weight of 1 to one stimulus and a weight of 0 to the other. B) is represented by assigning a weight of 1 to both stimuli and a weight of 0 to their combination. C) is represented by assigning a weight of 1 to both stimuli and to their combination. D) cannot be represented in any way that would make the network respond correctly.

Which statement is TRUE regarding configural nodes? A) They are part of the input layer of a discrete-component representation. B) They are part of the input layer of a distributed representation. C) They respond only when a combination of input nodes are active. D) Their connection to the output node has a positive weight.

In negative patterning, the connection from a configural node to the output node is given a: A) negative weight that cancels the weights from the individual cues, leading to no response to the compound stimulus. B) negative weight that cancels the weights from the individual cues, leading to an increased response to the compound stimulus. C) weight of 0, leading to no response to the compound stimulus. D) weight of 0, leading to an increased response to the compound stimulus.

A psychological representation of a category of objects, events, or people in the world is referred to as a: A) concept. B) category. C) prototype. D) node.

A division or class of entities in the world is referred to as a: A) concept. B) category. C) prototype. D) node.

The process by which animals and humans learn to classify stimuli into categories is known as: A) discrimination learning. B) category learning. C) configural learnaing. D) negative patterning

The rapid expansion of resources required to encode configurations as their number of component features increases produces: A) the consequential region. B) a combinatorial explosion. C) the generalization gradient. D) a topographic representation.

One solution to the problem of combinatorial explosion is to design a network in which: A) there is no internal representation layer. B) nodes in the internal layer can be designated as configural nodes as needed. C) the weights between the input nodes and the internal layer are fixed weights. D) the weights between the output nodes and the internal layer are fixed weights.

The central tendency of an idealized version of a concept or category is referred to as the: A) structure. B) category. C) concept. D) prototype.

_____ is a logical inference that is probably true and is usually based on attempts to draw a general rule from one or more specific instances or premises. A) Discrimination learning B) Inductive reasoning C) Inductive inference D) Negative patterning

It is obvious that all criminals have mothers. However, it is untrue that people who have mothers are criminals. This is an example of what type of reasoning? A) inductive inference B) natural categories C) negative patterning D) inverse reasoning

Which statement is TRUE regarding the primary sensory cortices? A) There is a specific cortical region dedicated to processing information from each sensory modality. B) Each region of the cortex responds preferentially to a particular type of stimulus. C) Neighboring cortical regions respond to similar stimuli. D) All of the statements are true.

The homunculus in S1: A) exaggerates some parts of the body and de-emphasizes others. B) represents each body part equally. C) represents the feet at the base of the cortex and the head at the top of the cortex. D) has no representation of the face.

The receptive field properties of A1 neurons can be explained by: A) the consequential region. B) the homunculus. C) distributed representations. D) discrete-component representations.

If one lesions the primary auditory cortex of a cat, the cat will: A) not be able to respond to any tones. B) be able to respond only to a particular tone. C) not be able to discriminate between different tones. D) not be able to generalize different tones.

If one lesions the primary auditory cortex of a cat, the generalization gradient: A) becomes negative. B) acquires two or more peaks. C) acquires a much sharper peak. D) flattens out.

If a tone and shock are repeatedly paired, neurons in A1: A) reduce their responding to the tone. B) change their best frequency to correspond with that of the tone. C) do not change their response to the tone. D) reduce their response to tones of similar frequency.

The different sensory cortices receive information about: A) whether a salient event has occurred. B) the other sensory modalities. C) the nature of an important consequence. D) the type of response to make.

The nucleus basalis: A) provides information regarding whether consequences are good or bad. B) selects what information enters memory and how it is to be encoded by other brain regions. C) sends output to the cortex to enable cortical remapping. D) compresses redundant or unimportant information.

Damage to the basal forebrain can cause what type of disorder? A) dissociative fugue B) anterograde amnesia C) retrograde amnesia D) cortical remapping

_____ is a neurotransmitter that has many functions in the brain, including the promotion of neural plasticity. A) Acetylcholine B) The nucleus basalis C) The amygdala D) Serotonin

The hippocampus and associated brain regions, including the entorhinal cortex and dentate gyrus, are known as the: A) amygdala. B) hippocampal region. C) parahippocampal region. D) perirhinal cortex.

The medial surface of the temporal lobe that contains the hippocampus, the amygdala, and other structures important for memory is referred to as the: A) medial temporal lobe. B) hippocampal region. C) parahippocampal region. D) perirhinal cortex.

Suppose a person lesions the hippocampus of a rabbit. The person presents a blue light and a yellow light together for several trials, and then presents just the yellow light followed by a shock until the rabbit is startled by the yellow light alone. How will the lesioned rabbit respond if the person now presents just the blue light? A) It will startle to the blue light, but not as strongly as it does to the yellow light. B) It will startle just as strongly to the blue light as it does to the yellow light. C) It will startle even more strongly to the blue light than it does to the yellow light. D) It will not startle to the blue light at all.

In a sensory preconditioning experiment, lesions to the hippocampal area lead to a(n) _____ in the CR in the _____ exposure condition. A) decrease; compound B) increase; compound C) decrease; separate D) increase; separate

Lesions of the hippocampal region lead to: A) enhanced acquired equivalence. B) impaired acquired equivalence. C) increased generalization between stimuli that have co-occurred in the past. D) enhanced latent inhibition.

Gluck and Myers have proposed a model of the hippocampal region in which the hippocampus: A) compresses useful or predictive information. B) expands redundant or unimportant information. C) stores the stimulus-response associations that control motor outputs. D) selects what information enters the memory and how it is to be encoded.

According to Gluck and Myers' model, the hippocampal region should be MOST active: A) throughout training. B) at the end of training. C) early in training. D) after an association has been learned.

Which characteristic is seen in people with schizophrenia? A) increased activity in the hippocampus B) smaller volume of the hippocampus C) normal shape of the hippocampus D) overgeneralization of learned associations

On an acquired-equivalence task, people with schizophrenia: A) perform as well as controls but take more time. B) cannot perform any part of the task. C) perform normally only in the third phase. D) can learn the initial discrimination but cannot generalize in the third phase.

In people with schizophrenia, antipsychotic medications appear to: A) remove the enhanced acquired-equivalence effects that are normally present. B) increase even more the enhanced acquired-equivalence effects that are normally present. C) remove some of the acquired-equivalence deficits. D) increase some of the acquired-equivalence deficits.

Which finding confirms Gluck and Myers's prediction regarding the role of the hippocampus in generalization? A) People with schizophrenia display reduced acquired-equivalency effects. B) Antipsychotic medications can affect acquired equivalence. C) Activity in the hippocampus during generalization trials on an acquired-equivalency task is correlated with accuracy. D) Activity in the hippocampus during learning trials on an acquired-equivalency task is correlated with accuracy.

Suppose one gives the following information to a patient with schizophrenia: Joe is taller than Frank; Frank is taller than Jim; Jim is taller than Mike; and Mike is taller than Steve. With which comparison would the patient have the MOST difficulty? A) comparing Joe with Frank B) comparing Steve with Jim C) comparing Frank with Mike D) comparing Mike with Steve

_____ is a tendency to ignore information that conflicts with prior belief and focus on information that is consistent with that belief. A) Discrimination B) Stereotypes C) Confirmation bias D) Racism

If a business owner continues for years to hire people who have Harvard degrees, never realizing that he would have done better if he had hired a brilliant summa cum laude from a local university who he didn't bother to interview, what is the business owner exhibiting? A) discrimination B) stereotypes C) confirmation bias D) racism

Which statement is TRUE of stereotypes? A) They are problematic mainly when they are not applied rigidly enough. B) They are rarely useful for guiding behavior. C) They reflect one's basic tendency to generalize in order to predict future events. D) All of the statements are true.

_____ and _____ are fundamental tools for one's survival. A) Discrimination; stereotypes B) Generalization; categorization C) Confirmation bias; risk association D) Racism; concept formation

_____ is a set of beliefs about the attributes of the members of a group. A) Discrimination B) Stereotype C) Confirmation bias D) Racism

Suppose a dog is trained to salivate in response to a bell that lasts for three seconds. Draw a generalization gradient that the dog might experience in response to bells of other durations.

Describe an example of generalization in everyday life.

Describe an example of discrimination (as it relates to the study of learning) in everyday life.

Explain why a distributed representation provides a better account of the generalization gradient than a discrete component representation does.

Suppose researchers train a dog to salivate in response to a 1000 Hz tone. They then test for generalization by presenting the 1000 Hz tone as well as tones of other pitches a distributed representation to the original tone and at least one of the other tones.

Describe how one could use discrimination training to teach a rat to distinguish between a red light and a green light.

Draw a generalization gradient that would occur for a yellow light before discrimination training. On the same graph, draw a generalization gradient that would occur for a yellow light after discrimination training.

Suppose researchers train a rat to press a bar when a 1000 Hz tone sounds and a person trains the same rat NOT to press the bar when a 1200 Hz tone sounds. Finally, they test for generalization using the following sounds: (a) 900 Hz, (b) 1000 Hz, (c) 1100 Hz, and (d) 1200 Hz. Draw a graph showing the excitatory and inhibitory gradients and the summation curve showing the peak shift.

Describe a network model that can account for the phenomenon of negative patterning.

What is combinatorial explosion? Why is it a problem in categorization learning?

Describe the procedure used to study sensory preconditioning. Why is sensory preconditioning an important aspect of learning?

Give an example from everyday life that demonstrates acquired equivalence.

Explain how stereotyping is related to the concept of generalization.

Discuss the evidence demonstrating cortical plasticity in A1. Explain what the results imply about the relationship between the stimulus and the consequences.

Describe the role of the nucleus basalis in generalization.

Discuss the evidence suggesting that the hippocampus is important for generalization.

Describe the specific ways that generalization is affected in people with schizophrenia.