Question 1

With syllogisms there are some combinations that one is unable to "draw logically valid conclusions from." Identify which combination of forms would be considered not logically valid.
A)two universal affirmatives statements
B)two particular affirmative statements
C)one universal affirmative and one particular affirmative statement
D)one universal negative statement and one particular affirmative statement

Accepted Answer

Two particular affirmative statements (I-I) do not allow for a logically valid conclusion because they do not provide enough information to deduce a necessary connection between the subjects and predicates involved.

Question 2

Which of the following is a modus tollens argument?
A)If you are born,then you have parents.You do not have parents.Therefore,you are not born.
B)If a fly bites you,then your arm swells.A fly bites you.Therefore,your arm swells.
C)If you eat too much,then you get fat.You do not eat too much.Therefore,you do not get fat.
D)If fish live in the water,then they have gills.Fish do not live in the water.Therefore,they do not have gills.

Accepted Answer

Modus tollens is a form of logical argument where the first premise is a conditional ("if...then..."), the second premise denies the consequent, and the conclusion denies the antecedent. Choice A follows this structure by stating "If you are born, then you have parents" and then denying the consequent ("You do not have parents") to conclude the denial of the antecedent ("Therefore, you are not born").

Question 3

Which of the following is false regarding deductive and inductive reasoning?
A)Deductive reasoning involves reasoning from general principles to specific facts or instances.
B)Syllogisms involve deductive reasoning.
C)Inductively based conclusions can be proved,whereas deductively based conclusions cannot be proved.
D)Inductively reasoned arguments can be disproved by even one contrary observation.

Accepted Answer

Inductively based conclusions cannot be proved, but they can be supported by a strong body of evidence. Deductive reasoning can lead to conclusions that are certain or logically necessary if the premises are true, but the truth of the premises may not always be known or certain. Option A and B are true, and Option D is also true as one contrary observation can disprove an inductive argument.

Question 4

A primary type of deductive reasoning in which the reasoner must draw a conclusion based on an if-then proposition is referred to as
A)conditional reasoning.
B)modus tollens argument.
C)a linear syllogism.
D)a categorical syllogism.

Accepted Answer

The definition provided perfectly describes conditional reasoning.

Question 5

All of the following are parts of a categorical syllogism except
A)the major premise.
B)the conditional premise.
C)the minor premise.
D)the conclusion.

Accepted Answer

A categorical syllogism consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. The conditional premise is not a part of a categorical syllogism.

Question 6

Evidence from more naturalistic studies of decision making reveal that when solving conditional probabilities most people recognize and use the ________ argument,but fail to use the _________ argument.
A)modus ponens;modus tollens
B)modus tollens;consequent
C)consequent;antecedent
D)modus ponens;consequent

Accepted Answer

Modus ponens is the logical rule that if A implies B, and A is true, then B must also be true. Modus tollens is the logical rule that if A implies B, and B is false, then A must also be false. Studies show that people are better at recognizing and using modus ponens (the antecedent) when solving conditional probabilities, but they often fail to use modus tollens (the consequent).

Question 7

In this task participants are shown a set of four two-sided cards (a number on one side and a letter on the other side).The participant is given a conditional statement and then has to decide which card(s)he must turn over to determine whether or not the conditional statement is true.
A)syllogism task
B)Myer's card task
C)Wason selection task
D)affirmation task

Accepted Answer

This task is known as the Wason selection task, which tests the participant's ability to understand logical reasoning and deduction. The participant must identify which card(s) to turn over to verify the validity of a conditional statement, demonstrating their understanding of logical reasoning.

Question 8

Increased activation in the _____________ has been observed during decision making tasks.
A)prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex
B)premotor cortex and limbic system
C)nucleus accumbens and parietal lobe
D)hypothalamus and Broca's area

Accepted Answer

Studies have consistently shown increased activation in the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex during decision making tasks. The prefrontal cortex is involved in higher-order cognitive processes such as decision making, planning, and working memory, while the anterior cingulate cortex is involved in evaluating and monitoring ongoing behavior and signaling the need for adjustment or correction.

Question 9

Which of the following is a modus ponens argument?
A)If you are happy,then you smile.You are happy.Therefore,you smile.
B)If thieves are skilled,they do not bungle their robberies.Thieves are not skilled.Therefore,they bungle their robberies.
C)If you are happy,then you smile.You are not happy.Therefore,you do not smile.
D)If thieves are skilled,then they do not bungle their robberies.Thieves do not bungle their robberies.Therefore,they are skilled.

Accepted Answer

This is a modus ponens argument because it follows the form of "If p then q. p, therefore q." The statement "if you are happy, then you smile" is the premise that sets up the conditional statement. The second premise, "you are happy," affirms the antecedent, and the conclusion "therefore, you smile" follows logically from the premises.

Question 10

The conditional proposition is "If it is a chair then it is a piece of furniture." Existing condition is that it is a piece of furniture.The inference made is that it is a chair.This particular type of fallacy is called
A)affirming the antecedent.
B)affirming the consequent.
C)denying the antecedent.
D)denying the consequent.

Accepted Answer

Affirming the consequent is the fallacy of assuming the truth of the consequent in a conditional statement and then using it to deduce the truth of the antecedent. In this case, the inference made is that it is a chair based on the fact that it is a piece of furniture, which is affirming the consequent.

Question 11

Mark sees a man walk into a bank downtown.Suddenly,alarms sound,people scream,and Mark sees the same man run out of the bank carrying a gun and a bag of money.Because Mark has never seen such an occurrence before,he uses a __________ to deduce that the man is a robber.
A)conversion strategy
B)syllogistic schema
C)transitive-inference strategy
D)pragmatic reasoning schema

Accepted Answer

A pragmatic reasoning schema is used to make inferences based on context and knowledge of how events typically occur in the real world. In this case, Mark is using his understanding of how banks work and how robberies typically occur to reason that the man he saw is a robber.

Question 12

Deductive arguments that involve drawing conclusions from two premises are referred to as a(n)
A)illicit conversion.
B)modus ponens argument.
C)syllogism.
D)modus tollens argument.

Accepted Answer

Deductive arguments that involve drawing conclusions from two premises are called syllogisms.

Question 13

All animals breathe.All humans are animals.Therefore,all humans breathe.The above is an example of a(n)
A)if-then statement.
B)linear syllogism.
C)illicit conversion.
D)categorical syllogism.

Accepted Answer

The above statement is a categorical syllogism, which follows the form of "All A are B, and all B are C, therefore all A are C". The given statement follows this form, so the answer is D.

Question 14

Deductive reasoning makes use of _____ which can be thought of as assertions that can be either true or false.
A)satisficing
B)subjective expected utility theory
C)method of difference
D)proposition

Accepted Answer

Deductive reasoning uses premises or propositions as the basis for logical conclusions. These propositions can be either true or false, and the logical conclusion will depend on the truth value of the premises.

Question 15

General organizing principles related to specific types of goals are termed
A)confirmation bias.
B)pragmatic reasoning schemas.
C)casual inferences.
D)fallacies.

Accepted Answer

Pragmatic reasoning schemas are general organizing principles related to specific types of goals, such as social goals or practical goals. The other options - confirmation bias, casual inferences, and fallacies - do not refer to specific organizing principles related to goal-setting.

Question 16

When the Wason selection task is placed in a familiar context (e.g. ,legal drinking age),participants
A)perform as well as they do on the original task.
B)perform better than they do on the original task.
C)perform worse than they do on the original task.
D)do not make any errors.

Accepted Answer

When the Wason selection task is contextualized into a familiar or meaningful scenario, such as checking for compliance with legal drinking age laws, participants generally perform better. This improvement is attributed to the use of real-world knowledge and heuristics, making the task more intuitive.

Question 17

Which of the following statements is not deductively valid?
A)If people watch television,then they get a headache.They watch television.
Therefore,they get a headache.
B)If a student writes an abstract for a paper,then she gets a good grade.A student's paper is abstract.Therefore,the student gets a good grade.
C)If the sky is clear,then there are no clouds.The sky is clear.Therefore,there are no clouds.
D)If a black cat crosses your path,then you will have bad luck.A black cat crosses your path.Therefore,you will have bad luck.

Accepted Answer

Statement B is not deductively valid because it commits a logical fallacy known as affirming the consequent. The premise states that writing an abstract leads to a good grade, but the conclusion is drawn from the paper being abstract, not from the student writing an abstract. This does not logically follow the given conditional statement.

Question 18

The conditional proposition is "If it is a chair then it is a piece of furniture." Existing condition is that it is not a chair.The inference made is that it is not a piece of furniture.This particular type of fallacy is called
A)affirming the antecedent.
B)affirming the consequent.
C)denying the antecedent.
D)denying the consequent.

Accepted Answer

The fallacy being committed is denying the antecedent, which is the incorrect inference that it is not a piece of furniture based on the existing condition that it is not a chair.

Question 19

The goal of __________ is to draw conclusions from principles and from evidence.
A)reasoning
B)problem solving
C)judgment and decision making
D)decision making and reasoning

Accepted Answer

Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from evidence and principles. Problem solving involves finding a solution to a specific problem, while judgment and decision making involve evaluating options and making choices based on values and goals. Decision making and reasoning could be a possible answer, but A)reasoning is the more specific and accurate choice.

Question 20

Cosmides (1989)has proposed that these two kinds of inferences were particularly useful during social interactions in our evolutionary history.
A)physical prowess and sociability
B)cheater detection and hunter detection
C)cost-benefit relationships and cheater detection
D)temperament and relationships benefits

Accepted Answer

Cosmides (1989) proposed that cost-benefit relationships and cheater detection were crucial cognitive adaptations for managing social interactions and cooperation among early humans, enhancing survival and reproductive success.

Quiz 12: Decision Making and Reasoning

With syllogisms there are some combinations that one is unable to "draw logically valid conclusions from." Identify which combination of forms would be considered not logically valid.

Which of the following is a modus tollens argument?

Which of the following is false regarding deductive and inductive reasoning?

A primary type of deductive reasoning in which the reasoner must draw a conclusion based on an if-then proposition is referred to as

All of the following are parts of a categorical syllogism except

Evidence from more naturalistic studies of decision making reveal that when solving conditional probabilities most people recognize and use the argument,but fail to use the _ argument.

In this task participants are shown a set of four two-sided cards (a number on one side and a letter on the other side) .The participant is given a conditional statement and then has to decide which card(s) he must turn over to determine whether or not the conditional statement is true.

Increased activation in the _____________ has been observed during decision making tasks.

Which of the following is a modus ponens argument?

The conditional proposition is "If it is a chair then it is a piece of furniture." Existing condition is that it is a piece of furniture.The inference made is that it is a chair.This particular type of fallacy is called

Mark sees a man walk into a bank downtown.Suddenly,alarms sound,people scream,and Mark sees the same man run out of the bank carrying a gun and a bag of money.Because Mark has never seen such an occurrence before,he uses a __________ to deduce that the man is a robber.

Deductive arguments that involve drawing conclusions from two premises are referred to as a(n)

All animals breathe.All humans are animals.Therefore,all humans breathe.The above is an example of a(n)

Deductive reasoning makes use of _____ which can be thought of as assertions that can be either true or false.

General organizing principles related to specific types of goals are termed

When the Wason selection task is placed in a familiar context (e.g. ,legal drinking age) ,participants

Which of the following statements is not deductively valid?

The conditional proposition is "If it is a chair then it is a piece of furniture." Existing condition is that it is not a chair.The inference made is that it is not a piece of furniture.This particular type of fallacy is called

The goal of __________ is to draw conclusions from principles and from evidence.

Cosmides (1989) has proposed that these two kinds of inferences were particularly useful during social interactions in our evolutionary history.