Question 1

Which of the following general statements best summarizes human performance on thinking tasks overall?
A) People lack basic thinking skills, leading to poor performance on most thinking tasks.
B) People are skilled thinkers, but face certain obstacles when they attempt different thinking tasks.
C) Not only do people lack fundamental thinking skills, but they encounter specific obstacles when completing various thinking tasks.
D) People perform surprisingly well on the thinking tasks researchers have examined thus far.

Accepted Answer

Research suggests that people are generally skilled thinkers, but face obstacles such as biases, heuristics, and limitations in working memory when attempting different types of thinking tasks. While there may be individual differences in cognitive ability and skill, overall human performance on thinking tasks is generally competent.

Question 2

Creative insights often arrive rather abruptly, at unexpected times and places such as while sitting in a bathtub. The idea seems to be that, while the thinker isn't engaging the problem consciously, he is continuing to think about it unconsciously. This particular process of solving problems goes by the name of __________.
A) restructuring
B) deduction
C) inductive reasoning
D) incubation

Accepted Answer

Incubation is a process in which the thinker is not actively engaged in problem-solving but continues to think about the problem unconsciously, leading to creative insights. Therefore, the best choice is D - incubation. Restructuring, deduction, and inductive reasoning all involve conscious problem-solving and aren't relevant to this scenario.

Question 3

Which of the following mechanisms is LEAST likely to be included in contemporary accounts of creativity in mainstream psychology?
A) spreading activation
B) substantial domain knowledge
C) richly interconnected knowledge
D) incubation

Accepted Answer

The answer of Which of the following mechanisms is LEAST...

Question 4

Which of the following characteristics of creativity is most likely to be cited by those who have experienced creative solutions?
A) its tendency to occur repeatedly in the same people
B) the role of settings in developing creativity
C) an incubation period followed by sudden solution
D) the intense study that often precedes solutions

Accepted Answer

The incubation period followed by sudden solution is a common characteristic of creativity that is often cited by individuals who have experienced creative solutions. This refers to the process of allowing ideas to develop unconsciously before revealing a sudden insight or solution. This is a distinct experience from intense study or a tendency to occur repeatedly in the same individuals. The role of settings may play a role in developing creativity, but this is not the most commonly cited characteristic of creativity.

Question 5

What occurs when chess masters and average chess players are briefly shown a chessboard with the pieces randomly arranged?
A) Both groups remember as much of the arrangement as when the pieces are in an order that reflects a game in play.
B) In some cases, the masters remember less of the arrangement than average players.
C) The masters usually remember more of the arrangement than the average players.
D) In some cases, the masters lose the following game to the average players.

Accepted Answer

Chess masters rely on recognizing patterns from actual games, so when pieces are randomly arranged, they may not remember the arrangement as well as when the pieces reflect a real game.

Question 6

With regard to how chess masters differ from chess novices, which of the following is TRUE?
A) Master analysts encode complex patterns of play into a number of small chunks.
B) Novices use heuristics that can hinder recall; master analysts have learned to inhibit these.
C) Master analysts generally have a larger-capacity working memory store.
D) Master analysts have learned to use eidetic (photographic) imagery.

Accepted Answer

Chess masters are known to encode complex patterns into chunks, allowing them to process and recall information more efficiently than novices.

Question 7

What does research on incubation reveal?
A) Time away from a problem leads to solving the problem.
B) Incubation works because it breaks false mental sets.
C) There are mixed findings and multiple interpretations of incubation.
D) Incubation works because it allows fatigue and frustration to dissipate.

Accepted Answer

Research on incubation has shown mixed findings and multiple interpretations, indicating that there is no clear consensus on the exact mechanism behind why incubation can sometimes lead to problem-solving. While some studies have suggested that taking a break from a problem can allow fatigue and frustration to dissipate (option D), others have proposed that incubation works by breaking false mental sets (option B). However, there is no clear evidence to support any one theory, making option C the best choice.

Question 8

Expert chess players think about chess positions differently than do players of lesser rank. Findings confirming this different way of thinking include the following:
A) Experts remember positions better than do novices.
B) Experts think about positions with their frontal lobes, novices with their limbic system.
C) Experts show better visual memory for positions than do novices.
D) Experts are better conceptualizers, not better in their memory for patterns as such.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Expert chess players think about chess positions...

Question 9

From the time he or she begins college, it takes the average candidate approximately 10 years to earn a Ph.D., a degree denoting expert knowledge in a specific area. How well does this accord with research on the development of expertise?
A) Not well-research shows it takes nearly 20 years to become an expert in a given domain.
B) Not well-5 years is generally sufficient to become an expert in a given field.
C) Not well-the notion of expertise is hopelessly subjective. One cannot say how long it takes to become an expert.
D) Quite well-10 years seems to be about how long it takes to become an expert in a given field.

Accepted Answer

Research on the development of expertise, such as the work of psychologist K. Anders Ericsson, suggests that it takes about 10 years of deliberate practice to become an expert in a given field, aligning with the timeline for earning a Ph.D.

Question 10

Which of the following alternatives INCORRECTLY identifies a shortcoming in human performance in one of the four domains of thinking discussed in your text?
A) Judgment-people rely on System II rather than System I thinking.
B) Reasoning-people have difficult with abstract logic tasks.
C) Decision making-rather than make the best decisions, people make decisions they can defend.
D) Problem solving-people bring unwarranted assumptions to bear on the problems they are trying to solve.

Accepted Answer

This statement is actually the opposite of a shortcoming in human performance in judgment. System II thinking is a more deliberate and logical process that can lead to better judgments, while System I thinking is more intuitive and can lead to biases and errors. Therefore, relying on System II thinking is actually a strength in judgment.

Question 11

When compared to a chess player who is competent but who is below the master level, at which type of memory is a chess master superior?
A) chunking memory
B) visual memory
C) working memory
D) iconic memory

Accepted Answer

Chess masters are superior at chunking memory, which allows them to recognize and remember complex configurations of chess pieces on the board. This skill is developed through extensive practice and study, enabling them to quickly assess the game state and make strategic decisions.

Question 12

What is the difference between chess masters and average chess players?
A) Masters are more patient.
B) Masters have better short-term memory.
C) Masters chunk the game into larger units.
D) Masters have better visual imagery.

Accepted Answer

Research has shown that one of the key differences between chess masters and average players is the ability to chunk the game into larger units, such as recognizing patterns and formations on the board. This allows them to better understand the game and make more strategic moves. While patience, memory, and visual imagery may also play a role in chess mastery, chunking appears to be the most important factor.

Question 13

Dr. Estrada prepares a grant application to fund a critical thinking program designed to improve college students' thinking. Dr. Estrada's proposed program aims to improve judgment by teaching careful, systematic System II thinking; decision making by encouraging students to consider more options when they make decisions; and problem solving by alerting students to the unwarranted assumptions they make that might constrain their ability to solve problems. Which of the following statements reflects a valid criticism of this program?
A) Judgment errors reflect an overreliance on System II thinking, not the failure to use System II strategies.
B) It is not worth funding an attempt to improve human thinking, as it is virtually impossible to do so.
C) Poor problem solving usually reflects the failure to apply mental sets, rather than the tendency to bring unwarranted assumptions to bear on the problem.
D) Unsatisfactory decision making performance often reflects the tendency to consider too many options, rather than too few.

Accepted Answer

Considering too many options can lead to decision paralysis, which is a valid criticism of the program's focus on encouraging more options.

Question 14

Which of the following statements about restructuring is TRUE?
A) It is generally sudden.
B) It leads to a problem's solution.
C) It is usually illusory.
D) It is sometimes gradual.

Accepted Answer

Restructuring can sometimes be a gradual process, particularly if it involves implementing changes to company operations or strategies over time. While it may not always lead to a problem's solution, it is not usually illusory, as it involves concrete changes to the way a company does business. It is also not generally sudden, as it often involves careful planning and analysis.

Question 15

The essence of mastership in typing, athletics, chess, and a variety of other skills is the ability to __________.
A) memorize
B) use mnemonics
C) organize material from the area of expertise into larger chunks
D) attend to the relevant stimuli for sustained periods of time

Accepted Answer

Mastery in skills often involves organizing material into larger chunks, which helps in processing and recalling information more efficiently.

Question 16

Which of the following statements best expresses your text's conclusion regarding the potential to improve human thinking?
A) It is virtually impossible to improve human thinking.
B) There is no need to improve human thinking. People perform surprisingly well on tasks in all four domains of thinking.
C) In many situations, improving human thinking may actually be fairly easy.
D) It is very difficult to improve human thinking, as people lack basic thinking skills.

Accepted Answer

The text suggests that while improving human thinking may require effort and deliberate practice, it is achievable in many situations. The author also acknowledges that there may be some challenges, but ultimately expresses a positive outlook on the potential for growth and development in human thinking skills. Option A and D are clearly contradicted by the text, and Option B is not a strong or relevant conclusion given the content of the passage.

Question 17

"I've got it!" your friend exclaims after struggling with a difficult physics problem in her text. Based on your text's discussions of restructuring and insight, what might you conclude regarding your friend's experience of illumination?
A) She has restructured the problem.
B) The problem's solution is assured.
C) She has discovered an analogy to the problem.
D) The problem's solution is actually more unlikely than ever.

Accepted Answer

The statement "I've got it!" implies that your friend has had a moment of insight or illumination, which is often characterized by the restructuring of the problem in the solver's mind. This restructuring allows for a sudden comprehension of a problem that seemed unsolvable before.

Question 18

The term incubation refers to __________.
A) creative problem solutions that occur after a long and intense effort that seems to go nowhere
B) a problem solution that occurs after a thinker turns away from the conscious pursuit of a solution
C) the insights that come at unexpected times and places
D) sudden restructurings in the way in which a problem is viewed

Accepted Answer

Incubation refers to the idea that sometimes stepping away from a problem or task can lead to creative problem solutions, as the unconscious mind continues to work on the problem during this downtime. This is different from sudden insights (C) or restructuring (D), as both of those refer to more conscious problem-solving processes. Option A is similar, but not exactly the same as incubation, as it only refers to the prolonged effort rather than the break from conscious effort that characterizes incubation.

Question 19

What unconscious process is said to occur after a person stops thinking about a problem and turns to another activity?
A) incubation
B) mental set
C) directed thinking
D) conditional reasoning

Accepted Answer

Incubation is a phenomenon where the unconscious mind continues to process information even without conscious attention. It is said to occur when a person stops thinking about a problem and engages in another task or activity. The unconscious mind can bring a fresh perspective or solution to the problem, leading to enhanced creativity and problem-solving abilities.

Question 20

In regard to chess masters and chess novices, which of the following is FALSE?
A) Generally, chess masters have better visual memory than chess novices.
B) Generally, chess masters are better at chunking the chess information on a board.
C) Generally, chess masters are better at evaluation of chess positions.
D) Generally, chess masters are better at looking ahead to future moves.

Accepted Answer

Chess masters do not necessarily have better visual memory than chess novices in a general sense. Their advantage comes from their ability to recognize patterns and structures specific to chess, which allows them to remember and analyze chess positions more effectively. This skill is developed through extensive practice and study of the game, rather than an inherent superior visual memory.

Quiz 9: Thinking

Which of the following general statements best summarizes human performance on thinking tasks overall?

Which of the following mechanisms is LEAST likely to be included in contemporary accounts of creativity in mainstream psychology?

Which of the following characteristics of creativity is most likely to be cited by those who have experienced creative solutions?

What occurs when chess masters and average chess players are briefly shown a chessboard with the pieces randomly arranged?

With regard to how chess masters differ from chess novices, which of the following is TRUE?

What does research on incubation reveal?

Expert chess players think about chess positions differently than do players of lesser rank. Findings confirming this different way of thinking include the following:

From the time he or she begins college, it takes the average candidate approximately 10 years to earn a Ph.D., a degree denoting expert knowledge in a specific area. How well does this accord with research on the development of expertise?

Which of the following alternatives INCORRECTLY identifies a shortcoming in human performance in one of the four domains of thinking discussed in your text?

When compared to a chess player who is competent but who is below the master level, at which type of memory is a chess master superior?

What is the difference between chess masters and average chess players?

Which of the following statements about restructuring is TRUE?

The essence of mastership in typing, athletics, chess, and a variety of other skills is the ability to __________.

Which of the following statements best expresses your text's conclusion regarding the potential to improve human thinking?

"I've got it!" your friend exclaims after struggling with a difficult physics problem in her text. Based on your text's discussions of restructuring and insight, what might you conclude regarding your friend's experience of illumination?

The term incubation refers to __________.

What unconscious process is said to occur after a person stops thinking about a problem and turns to another activity?

In regard to chess masters and chess novices, which of the following is FALSE?