Quiz 8: Learning and Decision Making

Learning refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.

Decision making reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge and skills that result from experience.

Learning is important because it has a significant impact on decision making.

Research shows that the difference between experts and novices is almost always a function of intelligence as opposed to the more popular view that learning makes the difference.

Explicit knowledge is what employees can typically learn only through experience.

Tacit knowledge is the kind of information that can be easily communicated during training sessions or using written manuals.

The entire process of reinforcement is a continuous cycle, and the repetition of behaviors is strengthened to the degree that reinforcement continues to occur.

For positive reinforcement to be successful, an employee needs to see a direct link between his or her behavior and the desired outcome.

Edgar has a habit of telling jokes during meetings. Others laugh, but it really does slow down the meetings. Josh, Edgar's manager, has asked other meeting members to refrain from laughing when Edgar tells a joke in future meetings. Josh is hoping Edgar will stop wasting time with the jokes. Josh is using extinction to change Edgar's behavior.

To be effective, positive reinforcement should necessarily be in the form of material rewards.

Variable interval scheduling is the simplest schedule of reinforcement and happens when a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior.

Research has consistently shown that fixed reinforcement schedules lead to higher levels of performance than variable schedules.

Research shows that desired behaviors tend to disappear much more quickly when reinforcement is discontinued under fixed plans.

When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the observed behavior, they are engaging in cognitive modeling.

Performance-oriented individuals enjoy working on new kinds of tasks, even if they fail during their early experiences.

Those with a performance-prove orientation focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will not think poorly of them.

Because of their tacit knowledge, experts sometimes cannot put into words why they know that a problem exists, why a solution will work, or how they accomplished a task.

The rational decision-making model offers a step-by-step approach to making decisions that maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives.

The rational decision-making model assumes that people are very rarely perfectly rational.

Andrew is under a lot of time pressure to make a decision. As a result, he chooses the first acceptable solution without considering any more possibilities. Andrew has engaged in satisficing behavior.

To be rational decision makers, we should evaluate each alternative as soon as we think of it.

Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, storing, and retrieving information about the environment.

A stereotype occurs when assumptions are made about others on the basis of their membership in a social group.

Projection bias causes problems in decision making because it limits our ability to develop appropriate criteria for a decision and evaluate decisions carefully.

Social identity theory holds that people identify themselves by the groups to which they belong and perceive and judge others by their group memberships.

Framing is the tendency to judge things erroneously based on a reference that is near to them.

The fundamental attribution error argues that people have a tendency to judge others' behaviors as due to internal factors.

Tiffany is now a division manager but was previously the sales manager for 10 years at Acme Sports Equipment. She tends to view all organizational problems based on the effect they will have on the sales department. Her decisions may be flawed due to selective attribution.

The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own successes to internal factors.

Escalation of commitment refers to the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action.

Learning is moderately correlated with task performance.

Learning has a weak positive effect on commitment.

Communities of practice are groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time.

Transfer of training occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job.

Which of these reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill that result from experience? A) Perception B) Learning C) Intuition D) Consensus E) A heuristic

_____ refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem. A) Decision making B) Learning C) Intuition D) Reinforcement E) Conditioning

The knowledge and skills that distinguish specialists from novices is referred to as: A) motivation. B) expertise. C) heuristic. D) inspiration. E) rationale.

Research shows that the differences between experts and novices are almost always a function of: A) intelligence. B) consensus. C) heuristic. D) personality. E) learning.

Truelearning only occurs when: A) employees avoid mimicking the behaviors of experts. B) experts also pretend to be novices. C) changes in behavior become relatively permanent. D) employees are assigned larger responsibilities. E) learned behaviors are not repeated over time.

Information that is relatively easily communicated and a large part of what companies teach during training sessions is known as _____ knowledge. A) inherent B) inferred C) implied D) tacit E) explicit

Lucy just moved to New York on a job assignment. Lucy got herself a map of the city and various other guides on restaurants, fitness centers, libraries, and theaters. Lucy learns about New York by studying these materials. Lucy acquires _____ knowledge by learning this way. A) consensus-based B) tacit C) explicit D) intuition-based E) inherent

Nicole has spent weeks studying the manuals in order to take the Lieutenant's exam. She has gained a great deal of ______ knowledge but little, if any, ______ knowledge from her studies. A) explicit, tacit B) high level; low level C) specific, general D) internal, external E) transitory, permanent

The knowledge that employees can typically learn only through experience is called _____ knowledge. A) consensus-based B) tacit C) explicit D) direct E) open

_____ knowledge is not easily communicated but could very well be the most important aspect of what we learn in organizations. A) Book-based B) Direct C) Explicit D) Tacit E) Documented

Which of the following is a characteristic of tacit knowledge? A) Transferability through written communication B) Existence as general information C) Ability to be learned through books D) Highly personal nature E) Existence as conscious and accessible information

Tacit knowledge _____. A) is based on experience B) involves conscious and accessible information C) can be learned through books D) exists as general information E) is easily transferred through written communication T

Vincent has worked at The Shadows restaurant for several years and in the restaurant industry for almost 30 years. He can't really explain it, but he "just knows" which applicants are the ones to hire. His intuition most likely comes from a high level of _____ that he has of the industry in general and this restaurant in particular. A) tacit knowledge B) extraneous knowledge C) early training D) continual reinforcement E) genetic knowledge

Explicit knowledge _____. A) is highly personal in nature B) cannot be articulated to others C) is job and situation-specific D) contains conscious and accessible information E) is based on employees' experience

Organizations use four specific consequences to modify employee behavior. They are known as: A) attribution biases. B) communities of practice. C) contingencies of reinforcement. D) climates of transfer. E) heuristics.

_____ occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior. A) Reverse discrimination B) Retribution C) Extinction D) Punishment E) Negative reinforcement

Which of these occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior? A) Reverse discrimination B) Neutral reinforcement C) Punishment D) Extinction E) Positive reinforcement

A manager suspends one of his subordinates for showing up to work late. This is an example of: A) negative feedback. B) punishment. C) negative reinforcement. D) extinction. E) neutral reinforcement.

Which two contingencies of reinforcement are designed to decrease undesired behaviors? A) Punishment and extinction B) Positive reinforcement and punishment C) Punishment and negative reinforcement D) Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement E) Negative reinforcement and extinction

_____ occurs when there is the removal of positive consequences following an unwanted behavior. A) Negative feedback B) Negative reinforcement C) Punishment D) Extinction E) Positive reinforcement

James is the new manager of operations at Springfield Motors. To his dismay, he finds the employees coming in late to work, taking long breaks, and behaving unprofessionally at their workstations. James decides to promote desirable work practices. He plans to introduce incentives for meeting the required targets but, at the same time, to withhold those incentives when employees' are late, take long breaks, or behave unprofessionally. Identify the contingencies that James is planning to implement. A) Punishment and extinction B) Positive reinforcement and punishment C) Punishment and negative reinforcement D) Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement E) Negative reinforcement and extinction

Jackson High School introduced a scholarship of $1,000 for students who maintain 100 percent attendance. This is an example of using _____. A) positive feedback B) negative feedback C) punishment D) extinction E) positive reinforcement

In general, _____ and _____ should be the most common forms of reinforcement used by managers to create learning among their employees. A) punishment; extinction B) negative reinforcement; extinction C) punishment; negative reinforcement D) positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement E) positive reinforcement; extinction

Which of the following is the simplest schedule of reinforcement? A) Variable ratio B) Variable interval C) Fixed ratio D) Continuous E) Fixed interval

_____ reinforcement happens when a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior. A) Fixed interval B) Variable ratio C) Fixed ratio D) Variable interval E) Continuous

With a _____ schedule, workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same. A) fixed interval B) variable ratio C) continuous reinforcement D) fixed ratio E) variable interval

ABC Corporation reviews its employees' salaries at the end of each fiscal year and gives raises as warranted. This is an example of _____ reinforcement. A) variable ratio B) fixed interval C) continuous D) fixed ratio E) variable interval

_____ schedules are designed to reinforce behaviors at random points in time. A) Fixed ratio B) Variable interval C) Continuous D) Variable ratio E) Fixed interval

Mark is a new hire at Blue Bay Technologies in Florida. His work involves creating technology-enabled business solutions for clients from various states. Mark's work gets evaluated and rewarded at the end of each month. This is an example of _____ reinforcement. A) fixed interval B) variable ratio C) continuous D) fixed ratio E) variable interval

The workers at Snack Time are always on their feet and do not take extra long breaks because their supervisor, Mr. Dan, pays surprise visits to the production department. This practice helps the firm exceed performance targets. Mr. Dan practices which of the following reinforcement schedules? A) Variable ratio schedule B) Fixed interval schedule C) Continuous schedule D) Variable interval schedule E) Fixed ratio schedule

Which schedule reinforces behaviors after a certain number of them have been exhibited? A) Continuous B) Variable interval C) Variable ratio D) Fixed ratio E) Fixed interval

A salaried paycheck is an example of a _____ reinforcement schedule, whereas piece-rate pay is an example of a _____ reinforcement schedule. A) continuous; fixed interval B) fixed interval; fixed ratio C) variable ratio; variable interval D) variable interval; fixed ratio E) fixed ratio; continuous

A slot machine is an example of a _____ reinforcement schedule. A) continuous B) fixed interval C) fixed ratio D) variable interval E) variable ratio

United Motors is facing shortage of funds and has decided to implement the piece-rate system of payment. This way, the workers who perform better will get higher wages, and it will not be a huge burden on the company's bank account. Which of the following methods of reinforcement schedules has United Motors implemented? A) Continuous B) Fixed interval C) Variable ratio D) Variable interval E) Fixed ratio

_____ theory argues that people in organizations have the ability to learn through the observation of others. A) Social learning B) Learning life cycle C) Bounded rationality D) Social identity E) Attribution

When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat what they have observed, they are engaging in: A) structural modeling. B) behavioral modeling. C) static learning. D) extrinsic learning. E) hierarchical modeling.

Which of the following is the first step in the behavioral modeling process? A) Reinforcement B) Production processes C) Attentional processes D) Retention processes E) Extinction

________ does not always result in positive outcomes for the organization because employees who witness other employees not being punished for leaving early, taking long lunch breaks, and taking supplies home may engage in the same counterproductive activities. A) Behavioral modeling B) Continuous reinforcement C) Selective perception D) Production processes E) Goal orientation

The last step of behavior modeling is: A) reinforcement. B) production process. C) attention process. D) retention process. E) behavior assessment.

When an individual has a _____, building competence is deemed more important than demonstrating competence. A) productivity bias B) learning orientation C) projection bias D) performance orientation E) negative reinforcement

People with _______ focus on demonstrating their capabilities so that others will think favorably of them. A) Type A personality B) a performance-prove orientation C) a performance-avoid orientation D) tacit knowledge E) explicit knowledge

_____ decisions are decisions that become somewhat automatic because people's knowledge allows them to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action that needs to be taken. A) Programmed B) Unstructured C) Indirect D) Spontaneous E) Surface

Grace is in charge of staffing for the pediatric unit and must make sure there are always enough nurses on the unit. When Reg breaks his leg skiing and can't work for several weeks, Grace is able to competently and easily decide how to adjust the schedule because she has done this many times over many years. Schedule reshuffling is a(n) _____ for her. A) programmed decision B) nonprogrammed decision C) escalation of commitment D) projection E) self-serving decision

_____ can be described as emotionally charged judgments that arise through quick, nonconscious, and holistic associations. A) Performance orientations B) Intuition C) Faulty attributions D) Calculations E) Rational decisions

New, complex, and unrecognized situations call for: A) structured decisions. B) external decisions. C) direct decisions. D) nonprogrammed decisions. E) irrational decisions.

The first step in rational decision making is to: A) generate the list of available alternatives. B) identify the criteria that are important in making the decision. C) evaluate the alternatives that are available. D) choose a person who could evaluate the decision. E) choose the solution that maximizes value.

The notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision refers to: A) management by exception. B) communities of practice. C) bounded rationality. D) projection bias. E) structure bias.

_____ results when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered. A) Emergence B) Neutralization C) Optimization D) Satisficing E) Stereotyping

To be a rational decision maker, one should do all of these except: A) boil the problem down to something that is easily understood. B) evaluate all the alternatives simultaneously. C) use accurate information to evaluate alternatives. D) pick the alternative that maximizes value. E) develop an exhaustive list of alternatives to consider as solutions.

The concept of bounded rationality suggests that we are likely to: A) pick the alternative that minimizes value. B) evaluate all alternatives simultaneously. C) use accurate information to evaluate alternatives. D) develop an exhaustive list of alternatives to consider as solutions. E) choose the first acceptable alternative.

_____ is the process of selecting, organizing, storing, and retrieving information about the environment. A) Perception B) Reinforcement C) Heuristic D) Stereotyping E) Attribution

The tendency of people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations is called: A) social identification. B) selective perception. C) availability bias. D) environmental bias. E) thin-slicing.

The belief that others think, feel, and act the same way as you do refers to: A) availability bias. B) anchoring effect. C) bandwagon effect. D) projection bias. E) halo effect.

At a World Issues Conference, all the participants were asked to develop responses to two case situations. People split themselves up into teams based on their occupations. Which of the following helps to explain why the participants acted this way? A) Self-fulfilling prophecy B) Bandwagon effect C) Social identity theory D) Projection bias E) Collective perception

A(n) _____ occurs when assumptions are made about others on the basis of their membership in a social group. A) availability bias B) bandwagon effect C) social identity D) projection bias E) stereotype

_____ are simple, efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily. A) Heuristics B) Perceptions C) Self-fulfilling prophecies D) Climates of transfer E) Attributions

The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is easier to recall refers to the: A) availability bias. B) bandwagon effect. C) self-fulfilling prophecy. D) projection bias. E) environmental bias.

The tendency to rely too heavily on one trait or piece of information when making decision refers to which of these biases? A) Availability bias B) Confirmation bias C) Anchoring D) Gambler's fallacy E) Halo effect

Albert is the manager of a large retail store, with the authority to hire employees. The store does not have a specialized human resource executive, and Albert himself conducts selection interviews. Albert has not received any training on selection and recruitment. Albert does not prepare in advance for interviews. He asks questions that come to his mind easily during interviews. He often finds that he does not hire good employees. This indicates _____. A) an availability bias B) the bandwagon effect C) a self-fulfilling prophecy D) a projection bias E) social identification processes

Albert is the manager of a large retail store, with the authority to hire employees. The store does not have a specialized human resource executive, and Albert himself conducts selection interviews. Albert has not received any training on selection and recruitment. Albert interviews people mainly to analyze if they have ability to address the latest problem that the store is facing. Identify the bias facing Albert in this case. A) Anchoring B) Representativeness C) Framing D) Contrast E) Recency

Albert is the manager of a large retail store, with the authority to hire employees. The store does not have a specialized human resource executive, and Albert himself conducts selection interviews. Albert has not received any training on selection and recruitment. Albert selected an applicant only because he displayed personality traits similar to one of his best performers. Identify the bias facing Albert in this case. A) Anchoring B) Recency C) Framing D) Representativeness E) Falseconsensus

About six months ago, Sally figured out that if she left her house in time to catch the early bus, she would not have to encounter her ex-husband on the way to work. As a result, Sally has been coming to work early. Her colleagues are under the impression that Sally is a hard-charging, ambitious person. Sally's colleagues are subject to: A) self-serving bias. B) fundamental attribution error. C) anchoring error. D) illusion of control error. E) halo effect.

When an employee comes late to the office, an internal attribution will occur if there is low ______, low _____, and high _____. A) consensus; consistency; extinction B) consensus; distinctiveness; consistency C) consistency; distinctiveness; consensus D) extinction; consistency; distinctiveness E) consensus; consistency; distinctiveness

When a worker comes late to the work site, an external attribution will occur if there is high ______, high ______, and low ______. A) consensus; consistency; extinction B) consensus; distinctiveness; consistency C) consistency; distinctiveness; consensus D) extinction; consistency; distinctiveness E) consensus; consistency; distinction

_____ refers to the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action. A) Availability bias B) Confirmation bias C) Escalation of commitment D) Gambler's fallacy E) Halo effect

Ken pushed very hard to go with the bubble project rather than the wave project. There have been several cost overruns, the project is two weeks beyond its projected finish date, and the technology just isn't working out as planned. Ken increases the funding for the third time and hires three new designers to help revamp the look of the product. Ken is engaging in ______. A) escalation of commitment B) goal-directed behavior C) selective perception D) a fundamental attribution error E) projection bias

Learning has _____ effect on performance and _____ effect on commitment. A) a moderate negative; a moderate positive B) a strong positive; a moderate negative C) a weak negative; a strong positive D) a moderate positive; a weak positive E) a weak positive; a moderate negative

_____ are groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time. A) Heuristics developers B) Communities of practice C) Control moderators D) Internal advocates E) Attribution anchors

Which of these occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job? A) Heuristics B) Communities of practice C) Illusion of control D) Transfer of training E) Attribution anchoring

Transfer of training can be fostered if organizations create a(n) _____, an environment that can support the use of new skills. A) locus of control B) internal heuristic C) climate for transfer D) community of practice E) social network

Organizations impart certain types of knowledge to employees through formal training, whereas some forms of information cannot be communicated through such training. Identify and compare the two types of knowledge these represent.

What are the four contingencies of reinforcement? Explain each and provide an example.

A student does his homework and assignments just to avoid being yelled at by the professor. Identify and explain the form of reinforcement used in this situation.

Compare and contrast the five schedules of reinforcement. Provide an example of each.

Define social learning theory. Explain the four steps of the modeling process.

Identify and explain the two methods that employees can use to make decisions.

Compare and contrast rational decision making and bounded rationality.

Define the term heuristic. Name and explain at least two of the most common heuristics.

Sara walked in late for a meeting with the managers. How would the managers consider this one incident in relation to Sara's promotion? What are the factors the managers would consider?

Discuss the steps an organization can take to foster learning. Provide an example of each.