Question 1

Jordan said, "Scientists have so far not been able to prove that the Loch Ness monster does not exist, and until that changes, I am going to believe that the monster does exist." Jordan shows the thinking or argumentation error of:

Accepted Answer

Jordan is committing the argumentation error of arguing from ignorance by stating that the absence of proof for the non-existence of the Loch Ness monster is reason enough to believe it exists. Additionally, he is reversing the burden of proof by putting the responsibility on scientists to prove the non-existence of the creature rather than on him to prove its existence.

Question 2

The "total time" hypothesis proposes that the more time spent studying, the more people learn, with all other things being equal. Based on this hypothesis, a person can predict that if one group studies a list of words for 10 minutes and a second group studies the same list for 5 minutes, then the group studying for 10 minutes will learn:

Accepted Answer

According to the "total time" hypothesis, the more time spent studying, the more people learn, with all other things being equal. Therefore, the group studying for 10 minutes should learn more list words than the group studying for 5 minutes.

Question 3

When experiments compare Bandura's social learning theory of aggression and Lorenz's drive theory of aggression, the results strongly suggest that:

Accepted Answer

When experiments compare Bandura's social learning theory with Lorenz's drive theory, the results suggest that catharsis, or venting aggression, is not effective in reducing aggressive behavior. This supports choice A, which states that catharsis is a psychological misconception rather than a valid solution for reducing aggressive behavior. The other answer choices are not supported by the experiments.

Question 4

Social learning theory states that if a person observes someone else behaving aggressively, then the person observing the aggressive model will be more likely to behave aggressively. Ben behaves aggressively; therefore, he observed someone behaving aggressively. Is this argument valid?

Accepted Answer

The argument is invalid because it involves asserting the consequent, which is a logical fallacy. Just because Ben behaves aggressively does not necessarily mean he observed someone else behaving aggressively.

Question 5

The cognitive theory of depression proposes that if people have negative thoughts and beliefs about themselves, then they are more likely to experience depression. Paula believes that she is a failure and not worthy of success. Therefore, she is likely to become depressed. Assuming the premises are true, is this a basic argument with a sound conclusion?

Accepted Answer

The argument follows a deductive reasoning pattern, where it starts from a general theory about the relationship between negative self-perceptions and depression, and applies it to Paula's specific case, leading to a prediction about her likelihood of becoming depressed. This is characteristic of deductive arguments, which, if based on true premises, lead to sound conclusions.

Question 6

If someone is a hypochondriac, then that person worries about having diseases that he or she does not have. Lately, Consuela has been worrying about getting a cold although she does not have one. Therefore, Consuela is a hypochondriac. Has a thinking or reasoning error been made in this argument?

Accepted Answer

The error in the argument is "asserting the consequent," which is a logical fallacy. This occurs when the argument assumes that because the outcome (worrying about having a disease) is present, the condition (being a hypochondriac) must also be true, without considering other explanations for the behavior.

Question 7

When people are angry, they are likely to raise their voices. Andreas yelled at Shannon; therefore, Andreas was probably angry with Shannon. The thinking or argumentation errors of _____ and _____ are being committed in this example.

Accepted Answer

The thinking error of asserting the consequent is being committed in this example, as the argument structure follows the form: If A (person is angry), then B (they raise their voice); B (Andreas yelled at Shannon); therefore, A (Andreas was angry with Shannon). This is an invalid argument, as other emotions or situational factors could also cause someone to raise their voice without being angry. The thinking error of belief bias is not relevant in this example. The thinking errors of arguing from possibility and shifting the burden of proof are not being committed. The thinking error of asserting the antecedent is the incorrect form for this argument structure as it follows the form: If A (person is angry), then B (they raise their voice); A (Andreas was angry with Shannon); therefore, B (Andreas yelled at Shannon), which is not what the statement is saying. Drawing a sound conclusion is not a thinking error, but rather the ideal outcome of reasoning.

Question 8

According to social learning theory, people tend to increase the frequency of aggressive behaviors when they:

Accepted Answer

According to social learning theory, people learn behaviors through observation and imitation of others. Therefore, observing another person behaving aggressively can increase the frequency of aggressive behaviors in an individual.

Question 9

In a conditional deductive argument, it is NOT valid to assert the:

Accepted Answer

In a conditional deductive argument, asserting the consequent does not guarantee the truth of the antecedent, making it an invalid form of reasoning known as affirming the consequent.

Question 10

When a sound deductive argument is valid and the premises are true, the conclusion:

Accepted Answer

If a sound deductive argument is valid (meaning that the conclusion follows logically from the premises) and the premises are true, then the conclusion must necessarily be true. This is the definition of a sound deductive argument – one in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.

Question 11

An applicant for a job reasoned that if she interviewed well, then she would probably be hired for the job. Later, she was hired for the job and concluded that she must have interviewed well. According to conventional rules, the applicant _____ make an error in her deductive reasoning because she asserted _____ in drawing her conclusion.

Accepted Answer

The applicant made an error in her deductive reasoning by affirming the consequent. This is a logical fallacy where one assumes that because the outcome occurred, the condition that leads to the outcome must have occurred, which is not logically valid.

Question 12

Karina said, "I think that most people have a special talent. This is because they are very good at doing one particular thing, and the thing that they excel at is quite specific to them." Karina is using the thinking error of _____ in her argumentation.

Accepted Answer

Karina's statement is an example of circular reasoning because her conclusion that most people have a special talent is based on the premise that they are very good at doing one particular thing, which essentially restates the conclusion in different words without providing independent support for it.

Question 13

When experiments compare Bandura's social learning theory of aggression and Lorenz's drive theory of aggression, the results:

Accepted Answer

Experiments often support Bandura's social learning theory of aggression, which suggests that aggression is learned through observing and imitating the behavior of others, rather than being a result of a built-in drive as Lorenz's theory suggests.

Question 14

Some creationists have argued that because evolutionary biologists and other scientists have not shown that the universe started with the act of some intelligent designer, people should conclude that the universe started the way the creationists have proposed. Which thinking error(s) is being committed in this argument?

Accepted Answer

The creationists are committing the error of shifting the burden of proof by asking scientists to prove a negative (i.e., that an intelligent designer did not create the universe). They are also arguing from possibility, suggesting that because something is possible, it must be true without providing any evidence to support their claim.

Question 15

The experiment in which children viewed adults interact with a "Bobo doll" punching bag provided evidence in support of:

Accepted Answer

The experiment with the Bobo doll provided evidence in support of Bandura's social learning theory of aggression. Children who observed an adult model being aggressive towards the Bobo doll were more likely to imitate that behavior. This suggests that aggressive behavior can be learned through observation and modeling. Darwin's theory of aggression evolving, Freud's psychoanalytic theory of aggression as an instinct, and Lorenz's drive theory of aggression do not explain the specific mechanism of observational learning that is highlighted in the Bobo doll experiment.

Question 16

If a someone is well adjusted, then that person will have high self-esteem. Crystal has high self-esteem; therefore, she is well adjusted. Is there a thinking or argumentation error in this statement?

Accepted Answer

The argument commits the fallacy of affirming the consequent, which occurs when one assumes that if the consequent (high self-esteem) is true, then the antecedent (being well-adjusted) must also be true. However, there may be other factors that contribute to high self-esteem, and therefore the conclusion that Crystal is well-adjusted cannot be logically inferred from the given premises.

Question 17

A political candidate stated that she would work to improve education as the "education candidate," and that she understood issues related to education. She further stated that people should vote for her because she was the only candidate who really comprehended education. Has she made a thinking or argumentation error?

Accepted Answer

The candidate's argument is circular because she is essentially saying that she is the only candidate who understands education because she is the "education candidate." This is a circular argument because the premise (she is the "education candidate") is the same as the conclusion (she is the only candidate who understands education).

Question 18

Roy said, "If lots of people buy tickets to that concert and it begins to sell out, then the band is probably a good one and worth seeing." Within one week, all of the tickets had been sold and Roy was unable to get a ticket. Roy said, "That band must be good. I think I'll get tickets the next time they play near me." Has Roy made a sound deductive argument?

Accepted Answer

Roy's argument follows a valid deductive pattern: If lots of people buy tickets to a concert and it begins to sell out, then the band is probably a good one and worth seeing. Lots of people did buy tickets to this concert, and it did sell out, so it follows that the band is probably good and worth seeing. The fact that Roy did not get a ticket does not negate the validity of his argument. The conclusion simply states that he will try to see the band the next time they play near him.

Question 19

Consistent with the predictions of social learning theory, people who _____ tend to increase the frequency of aggressive behaviors.

Accepted Answer

Social learning theory proposes that people learn behaviors by observing others and modeling their actions. In the case of aggression, if someone observes another person behaving aggressively, they may learn that this behavior is effective or acceptable and may increase their own aggressive behaviors as a result.

Question 20

Ron said that because research has not proved that repressed memory does not exist, it will probably be eventually shown to exist; therefore, people should conclude that repressed memory does exist for now. Which kind of thinking error is Ron making?

Accepted Answer

Ron is arguing from the possibility or ignorance by assuming that something may exist simply because it cannot be proved otherwise. He is not making a logical argument based on evidence or reason.

Quiz 2: Deductive Reasoning, Prediction, and Making Assumptions