Question 1

According to cognitive theory, infants use their early relationships to develop a set of assumptions that become a frame of reference that may be used later in life. Such a set of assumptions is called a _____.

Accepted Answer

The set of assumptions developed by infants through early relationships is called a working model according to cognitive theory.

Question 2

Developmentalists have found that social learning takes place _____.

Accepted Answer

Social learning takes place throughout life, not just during specific stages of development. People continue to learn from social interactions and experiences throughout their lives, which can shape their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

Question 3

Another term for self-rule is _____.

Accepted Answer

Self-rule refers to the ability to govern or control oneself, which is known as autonomy.

Question 4

When Caitlin falls and hurts herself, she cries and runs to her mother. Rather than comforting Caitlin, her mother offers her a toy to distract her. Her mother is probably a(n) _____.

Accepted Answer

Caitlin's mother is offering a toy to distract Caitlin from her pain, which suggests that she is a distal parent who prioritizes independence and emotional self-regulation over immediate comfort and support.

Question 5

According to Erikson, failure to develop autonomy over one's own actions is most closely identified with _____.

Accepted Answer

According to Erikson, the stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt occurs during early childhood, specifically from ages one to three, where children begin to assert their independence and control over their actions. Therefore, failure to develop autonomy over one's actions is most closely identified with shame and doubt.

Question 6

A toddler in Freud's anal stage would also be at Erikson's _____.

Accepted Answer

According to Freud's psychosexual stages, the anal stage occurs between the ages of 1-3, during which the child's focus is on the anus and the satisfaction of bowel and bladder functions. Erikson's autonomy versus shame and doubt stage also occurs around the same age, during which the child's main task is to develop a sense of autonomy or self-control while also avoiding feelings of shame and doubt. Therefore, a toddler in Freud's anal stage would also be at Erikson's autonomy versus shame and doubt stage.

Question 7

The Western value of independence is clearly exhibited in _____.

Accepted Answer

Erikson's stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt is focused on the development of a sense of independence and control over one's actions and environment. This is aligned with the Western value of independence, which emphasizes individualism and self-reliance. Freud's oral stage is focused on the development of trust and attachment to caregivers, Piaget's sensorimotor stage is focused on the development of physical and sensory abilities, and epigenetic theory is focused on how genes and environment interact to shape development, none of which directly relate to the Western value of independence.

Question 8

Distal parenting tends to produce children who are _____.

Accepted Answer

Distal parenting, which emphasizes independence and self-reliance, tends to produce children who are more self-aware.

Question 9

The autonomy versus shame and doubt crisis involves the child _____.

Accepted Answer

During the autonomy versus shame and doubt crisis, children are focused on developing a sense of control over their actions and decisions, which involves asserting themselves and exploring their environment. This is contrasted with the possibility of feeling shame and doubt about their abilities and worthiness. Trust, worthiness, and social relationships are more related to the earlier stages of psychosocial development.

Question 10

In the study comparing children in rural Cameroon with children from urban Greece, which children were observed spending the greatest time being held by their mothers?

Accepted Answer

The study found that 3-month-old Cameroonian children spent the greatest amount of time being held by their mothers, compared to all other groups studied.

Question 11

Proximal parenting tends to produce children who are _____.

Accepted Answer

Proximal parenting is characterized by warmth, closeness, and responsiveness, which tends to result in children who are more compliant and obedient. They are more likely to follow rules and conform to social norms. Self-awareness, competitiveness, and independence are not necessarily outcomes of proximal parenting.

Question 12

According to cognitive theory, an infant's early experiences are not necessarily pivotal; the _____ is.

Accepted Answer

According to cognitive theory, an infant's early experiences are important, but the way these experiences are interpreted by the infant is considered pivotal. This interpretation shapes their understanding and learning.

Question 13

According to Erikson's theory, what holds true for most toddlers?

Accepted Answer

According to Erikson's theory, most toddlers are in the stage of developing a sense of autonomy versus shame and doubt. During this stage, toddlers want to gain a sense of control over their own bodies and their environment. They are learning to assert their independence and make choices for themselves. Toilet training is a significant step in this process as it allows the toddler to feel in control of their bodily functions. Guilt and shame are not necessary for strengthening their autonomy, but if caregivers criticize or punish the toddler too harshly for mistakes or accidents, it can lead to feelings of shame and doubt.

Question 14

According to traditional behaviorism, personality is _____.

Accepted Answer

Traditional behaviorism posits that personality is shaped by environmental factors, including the influence of one's parents, through processes like conditioning. It emphasizes the role of external stimuli and responses rather than innate or unconscious factors.

Question 15

According to cognitive theory, a working model _____.

Accepted Answer

According to cognitive theory, a working model can be reorganized. Cognitive theory emphasizes the role of mental processes in how people perceive, remember, process, and use information. Our working models of the world are constantly being updated and refined based on new experiences and feedback. Therefore, it is not final, irrational, or unchangeable.

Question 16

Which theorist stated, "Failure to bring up a happy child, a well-adjusted child-assuming bodily health-falls squarely upon the parents' shoulders"?

Accepted Answer

John B. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, made this statement, emphasizing the role of environmental and parental influence over innate traits in a child's development.

Question 17

One-year-old Claire lives in a loving, but noisy, family home with her parents and four siblings. She receives much positive attention and has a trusting relationship with her family. According to cognitive theory, she will develop _____.

Accepted Answer

According to cognitive theory, children develop cognitive schemas, which are mental frameworks that organize and interpret information about the world. Claire's experiences with her family will shape her cognitive schema about what families are like. Based on her experiences, she is likely to develop a cognitive schema that families are as loving and loud as her working model, but not necessarily that they are always large or that she will always be the youngest in her family.

Question 18

_____ learning takes place by observing others.

Accepted Answer

Social learning theory, as proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes that learning can occur through observing and imitating the behaviors of others. This type of learning is commonly referred to as observational or social learning.

Question 19

Margarita and Roberto are warm, nurturing parents who hold their baby often. They are exhibiting _____.

Accepted Answer

Proximal parenting involves being physically close and responsive to the child's needs. Margarita and Roberto holding their baby often displays this type of parenting.

Question 20

Huan is 20 months old, and his mother is in a hurry. She wants to put his shoes on for him, but Huan rejects that by squirming and declaring, "No! Me!" It takes him five minutes, and his shoes end up on the wrong feet, but he proudly skips out to the car when he's done. Huan is in Erikson's _____ stage.

Accepted Answer

Huan's behavior is typical of the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage in Erikson's psychosocial development theory. This stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years old, and during this time, children are learning to assert their independence and develop their sense of self. Huan's desire to put on his shoes himself and his declaration of "No! Me!" show that he is beginning to assert his autonomy and independence, which is a key aspect of the stage. The fact that his shoes end up on the wrong feet is also common at this stage, as children are still learning the skills they need to be independent.

Quiz 7: The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development