Question 1

Dr. Cunningham finds that people who take herbal supplements that profess to improve memory scored, on average, 15 percent higher on a memory test relative to groups who did not take herbal supplements or placebos. However, other researchers have tried to study this effect and have not duplicated his findings. What principle of critical thinking does this example demonstrate?

Accepted Answer

This example demonstrates the principle of replicability, as other researchers have not been able to replicate Dr. Cunningham's findings. This emphasizes the importance of being able to replicate results in order to establish the validity of a study's findings.

Question 2

If a person were to say that a scientific finding was replicated, he or she would be saying that the finding was

Accepted Answer

When a scientific finding is replicated, it means that the results have been consistent and dependable across multiple studies or experiments. This supports the idea that the finding is robust and trustworthy, and can be considered to be a reliable result.

Question 3

Dr. Puffer has conducted a correlational study and reported that smoking causes depression. He has failed to consider that both smoking and depression could be caused by some other variable, such as stress. This scenario reflects what problem within the correlation-causation fallacy?

Accepted Answer

The scenario reflects the third variable problem, where a third variable can be responsible for the observed correlation between smoking and depression.

Question 4

Dr. Siela claimed that all humans had invisible souls that guided their behaviour. Which of the following principles of critical thinking is most applicable to his claim?

Accepted Answer

Dr. Siela's claim about invisible souls guiding human behaviour is a claim that can be tested and potentially proven false, making it falsifiable. This principle is key in critical thinking, as it allows for ideas to be evaluated objectively based on evidence and not solely on subjective beliefs or claims. The other principles are not as applicable to this specific claim. Replicability relates more to the ability to reproduce an experiment or study, Occam's razor suggests that the simplest explanation is usually the most accurate, and ruling out rival hypotheses is important in considering alternative explanations for a phenomenon.

Question 5

Initial reports in the media that listening to classical music made students more intelligent were followed by several failed attempts to reproduce the effects in the laboratories of other researchers. This is an example of the failure to

Accepted Answer

The failure to reproduce the effects in other labs indicates a failure to replicate the findings, which suggests that the initial reports may not have been accurate.

Question 6

A major problem with common-sense proverbs is that they often coexist with their complete opposite. For example, when people talk about dating they might say both "Opposites attract" and "Birds of a feather flock together!" This violates which principle of critical thinking?

Accepted Answer

The principle of falsifiability states that a proposition or theory cannot be scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being proven false. Common-sense proverbs that contradict each other cannot both be true at the same time and therefore one of them could potentially be proven false.

Question 7

The principle of parsimony is to __________ as the third variable problem is to __________.

Accepted Answer

The principle of parsimony, also known as Occam's razor, states that the simplest explanation is usually the correct one. The third variable problem is the issue of determining whether a correlation between two variables is due to a third variable. These two concepts are related but distinct, and the correct answer is C.

Question 8

Many claims of ESP have been refuted because, under controlled conditions, the claimants have been unable to reproduce what they claim to have done in the past. This an example of the failure to

Accepted Answer

The statement "under controlled conditions, the claimants have been unable to reproduce what they claim to have done in the past" suggests that the phenomenon in question cannot be replicated, which is a key component of scientific investigation. Therefore, the failure mentioned in the statement is related to the inability to replicate.

Question 9

You could tell one friend that "haste makes waste" and tell another friend that they should "strike while the iron is hot." That both claims sound reasonable, even though they make opposite recommendations would appear to violate the critical thinking principle of

Accepted Answer

The answer of You could tell one friend that "haste...

Question 10

One researcher finds that lemon odours affect memory, but a researcher in another lab finds no effect of lemon. This means that the initial results

Accepted Answer

The inconsistency in results between the two labs suggests that the initial results may not have been reliable, and thus need to be replicated to see if they hold up across different researchers and settings.

Question 11

Which of the following is something that you measure, that could have a range of different measurements?

Accepted Answer

A variable is something that can vary or change in value. It can have a range of different measurements, whereas a theory, hypothesis, and constant are not typically measured but rather are concepts or fixed values.

Question 12

Suppose you advance a theory that says that all cats have good night vision. You then set out to test the vision of cats all around the world, because if you find cats who can't see well at night then your theory will be refuted. In the context of critical thinking, this is an example of

Accepted Answer

This is an example of falsifiability because the theory is being tested by looking for evidence that contradicts it. If cats are found that don't have good night vision, then the theory is falsified.

Question 13

What did philosopher Karl Popper mean when he suggested that good hypotheses or theories are risky?

Accepted Answer

Popper believed that a good scientific hypothesis or theory should be risky, meaning that there must be a large possibility that it could be proven wrong. He argued that a hypothesis that is not risky, meaning that it cannot be falsified by testing, is not scientific at all.

Question 14

Suppose that a therapist notices several clients with anxiety disorders also demonstrate symptoms consistent with major depressive disorder. What might the therapist think if she considers the third variable problem?

Accepted Answer

The therapist may consider that a third factor, such as trauma, could be responsible for the manifestation of both anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder. Therefore, she may need to investigate other factors that could be influencing the relationship between the two disorders.

Question 15

Which of the following claims is NOT falsifiable?

Accepted Answer

The claim "Bad people get what they deserve, eventually" is not falsifiable because it is based on moral and ethical beliefs, which cannot be proven or disproven through empirical evidence. It is a subjective statement that is not testable through scientific methods.

Question 16

Philosopher Karl Popper would be most impressed with your hypothesis if it made a(n)

Accepted Answer

Karl Popper emphasized the importance of falsifiability in scientific hypotheses. He would be most impressed with a hypothesis that makes a risky prediction, as it can be tested and potentially falsified, which is crucial for scientific progress.

Question 17

Which philosopher suggested a useful theory had to be falsifiable?

Accepted Answer

Karl Popper is known for his theory of falsifiability, which states that a scientific theory must be able to be proven false in order for it to be considered valid. This principle is a cornerstone of the scientific method.

Question 18

A psychologist should state research questions such that new evidence could either support or refute the question. This is the critical thinking principle of

Accepted Answer

The principle of falsifiability states that research questions or hypotheses should be stated in a way that they can be tested and potentially disproven or refuted by new evidence. This encourages critical thinking and scientific inquiry, as researchers must actively seek out evidence that could potentially disprove their hypothesis.

Question 19

There is a strong correlation between smoking and risk of cancer. Some people have argued that because correlation is not causation, this evidence is not a good reason to quit smoking. Is this a reasonable conclusion?

Accepted Answer

Just because there is a correlation does not necessarily mean that there is a direct causal relationship, but it is still a strong reason to consider quitting smoking due to the increased risk of cancer. Additionally, in this case, there is actually evidence of a causal relationship between smoking and cancer, making this argument even weaker.

Question 20

Scientific findings that are consistent, no matter what lab does the testing, are said to be

Accepted Answer

Scientific findings that are consistent, no matter what lab does the testing, are said to be replicable. Accuracy refers to how closely the measured value matches the true value. Falsifiability refers to the possibility of proving a statement or hypothesis false. Parsimony refers to the principle that the simplest explanation is often the best.

Quiz 1: Psychology and Scientific Thinking