Research on the Use of Force Has Identified All of the Following

Research on the use of force has identified all of the following as determinants of police violence EXCEPT:

A) police/citizen interactions are voluntary, public, and time-consuming
B) police cannot choose the time and place where they perform their services
C) police must deal with both the shock and substance of citizen problems as they occur
D) many individuals who come to their attention do not seek or welcome it