Question 1

The coach told Bob's father, "He can't dribble, shoot, defend, or even keep his shoes tied!" and showed him the year's statistics.Even so, Bob's father still thinks Bob has a career in professional basketball.This represents:
A)confirmation bias
B)a framing effect
C)the incubation effect
D)belief persistence

Accepted Answer

Belief persistence is the tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the basis of that belief. In this scenario, despite the coach providing evidence (year's statistics) that Bob lacks the necessary skills for professional basketball, Bob's father maintains his belief in Bob's potential career, illustrating belief persistence.

Question 2

Melody's new next-door neighbor tends to dress rather outrageously and act in a very vivacious manner.Based on this information, Melody decides her new neighbor must be an art major at the local university.In this case, Melody appears to have based her decision on:
A)the availability heuristic
B)the representativeness heuristic
C)anchoring and adjustment
D)working backward

Accepted Answer

Melody has used the representativeness heuristic by assuming that her new neighbor's behavior and dressing style are representative of an art major. She has formed a stereotype based on her perception of what an art major might behave like.

Question 3

Collier is leafing through a stack of questionnaires that have been completed by adult males in a research study.One respondent has listed his height as 6 feet, 5 inches, but the occupation is difficult to read.It might be basketball player or bank president.Collier decides it must be basketball player and enters that information into the computer.In this case, Collier has probably based his decision on:
A)the representativeness heuristic
B)the availability heuristic
C)anchoring and adjustment
D)a means-ends analysis of the data

Accepted Answer

Collier likely used the representativeness heuristic, which involves making judgments based on how well something matches our stereotypes or expectations. In this case, the height of the respondent fits the stereotype of a basketball player more closely than that of a bank president.

Question 4

Leo used to eat tuna often, but after a case of botulism made headlines, he decided tuna was too risky.His decision appears to have been influenced by:
A)a framing effect
B)the availability heuristic
C)functional fixedness
D)the representativeness heuristic

Accepted Answer

Leo's decision seems to have been influenced by the availability heuristic, which is the tendency to rely on easily available information when making decisions. The headlines about the botulism case made him associate tuna with danger, even though the actual risk might be low.

Question 5

In one study, people were asked whether English words that begin with the letter "k" were more common than English words with "k" as the third letter.Most people incorrectly stated that words beginning with the letter "k" were more common.This may have occurred because it is relatively easy to think of words that start with the letter "k" and relatively difficult to think of words with "k" as the third letter.The results of this study support the view that people often use:
A)the availability heuristic when they are making probability estimates
B)the representativeness heuristic when they are making probability estimates
C)anchoring and adjustment to make probability estimates
D)work backward incorrectly when attempting to solve the problem

Accepted Answer

The availability heuristic is a cognitive shortcut where people rely on easily accessible examples to make a judgment or decision. In this case, participants relied on the easily accessible words that start with the letter "k" and overestimated their frequency.

Question 6

When people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone, they are displaying the:
A)gambler's fallacy
B)overconfidence effect
C)conjunction fallacy
D)framing effect

Accepted Answer

The conjunction fallacy is the tendency to overestimate the probability of a conjunction of events (i.e., event A AND event B) compared to the probability of either event A or event B alone. It goes against the rules of probability and logic. Option A, Gambler's fallacy, is the belief that the outcomes of a random event are influenced by the outcomes of previous, unrelated events. Option B, Overconfidence effect, is the tendency to have more confidence in one's own abilities and judgments than justified by the evidence. Option D, Framing effect, is the influence of the way a situation or choice is presented (i.e, framed) on our decision-making.

Question 7

Corey was serving on a jury in a criminal case, and the jury reached a unanimous "not guilty" verdict.Several months later, some additional evidence came to light that strongly suggested that the defendant was, in fact, guilty of the crime in question.Corey is still not convinced by the new evidence and claims he wouldn't have voted guilty, even if the new information had been presented during the trial.In this example, Corey is showing evidence of:
A)the framing effect
B)the availability heuristic
C)belief persistence
D)memory reconstruction

Accepted Answer

Corey's refusal to consider the new evidence and his persistence in his belief even in the face of contradictory information is an example of belief persistence. This phenomenon occurs when individuals hold onto their beliefs even when new evidence contradicts their previous belief. It is also known as "confirmatory bias," as individuals are more likely to seek out and remember information that confirms their beliefs, and disregard or forget information that contradicts them.

Question 8

Maribel is on a jury and she is already convinced that the defendant in the case is not guilty.She listens very attentively to everything the defense attorneys have to say, but she tends to pay less attention when the prosecution is presenting evidence.In this instance, Maribel is showing evidence of:
A)a confirmation bias
B)the framing effect
C)functional fixedness
D)the availability heuristic

Accepted Answer

Maribel's pre-existing belief that the defendant is not guilty is leading her to selectively attend to information that supports this belief and ignore contradictory information, which is an example of confirmation bias. The other options do not accurately describe Maribel's behavior in this scenario.

Question 9

Emil's friend asks how well Emil gets along with his younger brother.Emil thinks about how irritating his younger brother was yesterday, and the big fight they had as a result, and tells his friend that he doesn't get along with his brother at all.In this instance, Emil's response is consistent with:
A)a framing effect
B)functional fixedness
C)the representativeness heuristic
D)the availability heuristic

Accepted Answer

Emil's response is influenced by the availability heuristic, which means he is basing his judgment on the most recent or easily recalled examples of their interactions, such as the recent fight, rather than considering the entirety of their relationship.

Question 10

Because the news report of a plane crash was fresh in her mind, Lara decided flying was just too risky.Her risk estimate appears to have been influenced by:
A)a framing effect
B)functional fixedness
C)the representativeness heuristic
D)the availability heuristic

Accepted Answer

Lara's risk estimate was influenced by the availability heuristic, which refers to the tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how readily available it is in our memory or the media. The news report of the plane crash was fresh in her mind, making her perceive flying as a more risky mode of transportation.

Question 11

When people use the availability heuristic to estimate probabilities for events, they base their estimates on:
A)the similarity between the event in question and their prototype
B)the ease with which examples can be brought to mind
C)the difference between the event in question and their starting estimate
D)mathematical calculations of the expected value

Accepted Answer

When people use the availability heuristic to estimate probabilities, they base their estimates on the ease with which examples can be brought to mind. This means that events that are more memorable or easily retrievable from memory will be judged as more probable than events that are less memorable or less easily retrievable.

Question 12

Belief persistence involves a tendency to:
A)draw a general conclusion based on a small number of instances
B)only see objects and their potential uses in typical ways
C)maintain an opinion, even when confronted with disconfirming evidence
D)ignore base-rate information when estimating the likelihood of uncertain events

Accepted Answer

Belief persistence refers to the tendency to maintain one's beliefs even when presented with evidence that contradicts those beliefs. This can happen due to various reasons, such as cognitive dissonance, confirmation bias, or selective attention. As a result, beliefs can persist in the face of contradictory evidence, leading to erroneous conclusions and judgments.

Question 13

Claude has been watching his new neighbor for a week.She drives a sporty car, carries a cell phone, and wears nothing but blue business suits.Claude decides his new neighbor must be a lawyer.In this case, Claude seems to have formed an opinion about his new neighbor's occupation based on:
A)the availability heuristic
B)the representativeness heuristic
C)anchoring and adjustment
D)framing

Accepted Answer

Claude seems to have formed an opinion about his neighbor's occupation based on the representativeness heuristic, where he is making a judgment based on how well his neighbor fits the prototype of a lawyer (sporty car, cell phone, blue business suits).

Question 14

Vance has been following the state lottery for over a year, and he has a record of the number of times each number has been selected.He has noted that six of the possible numbers have only been selected four or five times in the entire year.He is planning to invest $1,000 in lottery tickets with that particular six-number combination because he is sure those numbers "are due." In this case, Vance is showing evidence of:
A)the availability heuristic
B)anchoring and adjustment
C)framing
D)the representativeness heuristic

Accepted Answer

Vance is demonstrating the representativeness heuristic by assuming that because certain numbers have been selected less frequently in the past, they are more likely to be selected in the future. This is a common misconception about probability and randomness, where individuals believe outcomes that haven't occurred as frequently are "due" to happen, which aligns with the representativeness heuristic's reliance on perceived patterns or similarities to make judgments.

Question 15

When people estimate the probability of one specific event belonging to a class of events, based on the similarity between the event in question and the average member for that class of events, they are using:
A)the representativeness heuristic
B)the availability heuristic
C)anchoring and adjustment
D)means-ends analysis

Accepted Answer

The representativeness heuristic is used when people estimate the probability of an event based on how well it matches a prototype or representative image of a particular category. In this case, people are estimating the probability based on the similarity between the event in question and the average member of a class of events.

Question 16

When people use the representativeness heuristic to estimate probabilities for events, they base their estimates on:
A)the ease with which examples can be brought to mind
B)the similarity between the event in question and their prototype
C)the difference between the event in question and their starting estimate
D)mathematical calculations of the expected value

Accepted Answer

The representativeness heuristic is based on how similar an event is to our prototype or typical example of that event. We make judgments about probability based on how well an event matches our expectations, rather than on statistical or numerical evidence. The ease of bringing examples to mind is a factor in availability heuristic, not representativeness heuristic. The difference between the event in question and starting estimate is not a factor in either heuristic. Mathematical calculations of expected value is a more analytical approach to probability estimation, which is not related to representativeness heuristic.

Question 17

Sarah had invested most of her retirement savings in energy companies.However, when Enron declared bankruptcy, she transferred all her investments to government bonds because she decided that other energy companies were also likely to go bankrupt.In this example, Sarah's decision has most likely been influenced by the:
A)availability heuristic
B)representativeness heuristic
C)gambler's fallacy
D)underconfidence effect

Accepted Answer

Sarah's decision is influenced by the availability heuristic, as she overestimates the likelihood of other energy companies going bankrupt based on the recent, vivid example of Enron's bankruptcy. This heuristic involves making decisions based on the information that is most readily available to us, often leading to a bias towards recent or highly memorable events.

Question 18

Cleo's job requires a lot of airline travel, but she had never really worried about her safety until she read about three airline crashes within a two-week period.She decided that air travel was unsafe, and now she drives or takes the train whenever she has to travel on business.In this case, Cleo's decision to avoid traveling by air may have been influenced by:
A)the framing effect
B)functional fixedness
C)the availability heuristic
D)the representativeness heuristic

Accepted Answer

Cleo's decision to avoid air travel is likely influenced by the availability heuristic, which is the tendency to make judgments based on how easily specific examples come to mind. The recent news of three airline crashes makes it easier for Cleo to recall incidents of air travel being unsafe, which may lead her to overestimate the likelihood of air travel accidents and avoid it in favor of perceived safer travel methods.

Question 19

When people estimate the probability of an event based on the ease with which examples can be brought to mind, they are using the:
A)representativeness heuristic
B)availability heuristic
C)functional fixedness heuristic
D)working backward heuristic

Accepted Answer

The availability heuristic involves relying on the ease with which examples come to mind when estimating the probability of an event. This can lead to biases, such as overestimating the likelihood of rare events that receive more media attention or are more memorable.

Question 20

Wilma believed that her local senator was an honest, law-biding citizen.When he was indicted on charges of insider trading, she told all her friends there had been a mistake and he would soon be cleared.Finally, the senator confessed to the crimes and served time in prison.Through all of this, Wilma kept insisting he had been framed and was taking the blame to protect someone else.In this example, Wilma shows strong evidence of:
A)belief persistence
B)the framing effect
C)the availability heuristic
D)memory reconstruction

Accepted Answer

Wilma is exhibiting belief persistence, which is the tendency to hold on to one's initial beliefs despite evidence to the contrary. She continues to believe that the senator is innocent even after he confesses to the crime and serves time in prison. This is a common cognitive bias that affects our ability to accurately assess information and update our beliefs in light of new evidence.

Quiz 9: Language and Thought

The coach told Bob's father, "He can't dribble, shoot, defend, or even keep his shoes tied!" and showed him the year's statistics.Even so, Bob's father still thinks Bob has a career in professional basketball.This represents:

Melody's new next-door neighbor tends to dress rather outrageously and act in a very vivacious manner.Based on this information, Melody decides her new neighbor must be an art major at the local university.In this case, Melody appears to have based her decision on:

Leo used to eat tuna often, but after a case of botulism made headlines, he decided tuna was too risky.His decision appears to have been influenced by:

When people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone, they are displaying the:

Because the news report of a plane crash was fresh in her mind, Lara decided flying was just too risky.Her risk estimate appears to have been influenced by:

When people use the availability heuristic to estimate probabilities for events, they base their estimates on:

Belief persistence involves a tendency to:

Claude has been watching his new neighbor for a week.She drives a sporty car, carries a cell phone, and wears nothing but blue business suits.Claude decides his new neighbor must be a lawyer.In this case, Claude seems to have formed an opinion about his new neighbor's occupation based on:

When people estimate the probability of one specific event belonging to a class of events, based on the similarity between the event in question and the average member for that class of events, they are using:

When people use the representativeness heuristic to estimate probabilities for events, they base their estimates on:

When people estimate the probability of an event based on the ease with which examples can be brought to mind, they are using the: