Question 1

Doubting one's own conclusions is:
A)inconsistent with the scientific method.
B)a vital component of critical thinking.
C)an adaptive psychological tendency that results from our evolutionary past.
D)a maladaptive pattern of thinking that is taught to us at an early age.

Accepted Answer

Doubting one's own conclusions is a vital component of critical thinking. It allows individuals to question their own assumptions and evaluate the evidence objectively, leading to better decision-making and problem-solving. The scientific method also promotes skepticism and encourages the testing and verification of conclusions through empirical evidence. Therefore, doubting one's own conclusions is an important skill to develop in modern society.

Question 2

In order to develop your critical thinking skills,you should:
A)try to avoid being skeptical of new evidence.
B)surround yourself with people who do not share your views.
C)believe everything published in quality scientific journals.
D)not base decisions on missing evidence.

Accepted Answer

Surrounding yourself with people who do not share your views can expose you to different perspectives and challenge your thinking, which is essential for developing critical thinking skills.

Question 3

Participants in one study (Lord,Ross,& Lepper,1979)were first asked about their beliefs regarding the death penalty,and then they were provided with evidence both for and against it.After studying these materials,beliefs about the death penalty were reassessed.This study found that participants:
A)reported that their original beliefs were weakened after evaluating arguments on both sides of the debate.
B)were more likely to favor the death penalty,regardless of their original beliefs.
C)were more likely to oppose the death penalty,regardless of their original beliefs.
D)reported that their original beliefs were strengthened after evaluating arguments on both sides of the debate.

Accepted Answer

The study by Lord, Ross, & Lepper (1979) found that participants' original beliefs about the death penalty were strengthened after they were exposed to evidence supporting both sides. This phenomenon is known as the confirmation bias, where individuals favor information that confirms their preexisting beliefs.

Question 4

An archaeologist discovers new evidence suggesting humans inhabited a particular area long before it was originally believed.Because these results are so novel,if the archaeologist is critically thinking,she should first:
A)critically evaluate the work of other archaeologists who argue the opposite.
B)contact archaeologists who oppose this viewpoint and ask them to evaluate her evidence.
C)begin writing a book on her findings.
D)contact the press and begin publicizing her findings.

Accepted Answer

The archaeologist should seek peer evaluation to ensure the validity and reliability of her findings before making any public claims.

Question 5

When presented with information that is inconsistent with their attitudes or beliefs,people generally ask themselves which question?
A)Is there any evidence here that would make me reconsider my opinion?
B)Is this evidence stronger than the evidence consistent with my beliefs?
C)What would be the social repercussions if I change my mind on this issue?
D)Is this information flawed or limited in some way?

Accepted Answer

When people encounter information that contradicts their existing beliefs or attitudes, they often engage in a process known as motivated reasoning. This involves critically scrutinizing the conflicting information to find flaws or limitations, rather than openly reconsidering their stance. This defensive mechanism helps to maintain their current beliefs by discrediting the challenging information.

Question 6

A psychologist discovers an important research finding in her laboratory that is seemingly inconsistent with what other researchers have found.Her new results have profound implications to our understanding of human behavior.If the psychologist is critically thinking,she should first:
A)critically evaluate previous research looking for flaws.
B)attempt to replicate her own findings and rule out alternative explanations for her results.
C)consider how general her findings are to people living in other cultures.
D)contact the press and begin publicizing her findings.

Accepted Answer

The psychologist should attempt to replicate her own findings and rule out alternative explanations for her results before jumping to any conclusions or publicizing her findings. This is an important part of the scientific process and ensures that her findings are reliable and accurate. Critically evaluating previous research and considering how general her findings are to people living in other cultures can also be important steps, but they should come after replicating and verifying her results. Contacting the press and publicizing her findings should only be done after the research has been replicated, verified, and peer-reviewed by other experts in the field.

Question 7

An archaeologist discovers new evidence suggesting humans inhabited a particular area long before it was originally believed.Because these results are so novel,if the archaeologist is critically thinking,she should first:
A)critically evaluate the work of other archaeologists who argue the opposite.
B)contact archaeologists who share her views and ask them to evaluate her evidence.
C)begin writing a book on her findings.
D)look for additional evidence that humans inhabited the area that may still be missing.

Accepted Answer

The archaeologist should adopt a skeptical approach to her findings and continue looking for additional evidence to support her claims. This will help to account for any potential errors or oversights in her research and support her conclusions if they are ultimately found to be true. It is important to remain open to alternative perspectives and continue to gather evidence before drawing final conclusions. Options A and B are also valid strategies, but they are better suited for verifying existing evidence rather than generating new evidence. Option C is premature since the archaeologist has not yet fully evaluated and analyzed all of the evidence.

Question 8

Suppose that a local government is considering a construction project that will cost tax payers a large amount of money.Residents have strong views on both sides of the debate.In an attempt to educate the public,the city arranges several informational sessions in which the pros and cons of the project are discussed.Which result is consistent with the psychological literature?
A)Residents' original attitudes toward the project would be strengthened by attending the informational sessions.
B)Residents' original attitudes toward the project would be weakened slightly by attending the informational sessions.
C)The majority of the residents would change their minds after hearing evidence on both sides of the debate.
D)The informational sessions would have no effect whatsoever on residents' attitudes toward the project.

Accepted Answer

Attending informational sessions where both sides of an argument are presented can lead to attitude polarization, where individuals' pre-existing views become more extreme. This phenomenon is consistent with the psychological literature on belief perseverance and confirmation bias, where people interpret new information in a way that reinforces their pre-existing beliefs.

Question 9

Which statement about the role of missing evidence in decision making is TRUE?
A)People have a natural tendency to seek out informational gaps in order to arrive at the best possible decision.
B)People usually overvalue the importance of missing evidence.
C)People usually ignore missing evidence.
D)People have a strong tendency to actively seek missing information if what is missing would challenge their existing beliefs.

Accepted Answer

People often ignore missing evidence, a phenomenon known as "absence blindness," where they fail to consider what is not present in the information they have.

Question 10

An archaeologist discovers new evidence suggesting humans inhabited a particular area long before it was originally believed.If the archaeologist is critically thinking,she should first:
A)critically evaluate the work of other archaeologists who argue the opposite.
B)contact her professional colleagues who share her views and spread the good news.
C)conduct additional tests on the evidence in an attempt to falsify her results.
D)contact the press and begin publicizing her findings.

Accepted Answer

The archaeologist should use critical thinking to evaluate the evidence and ensure that there are no flaws or inconsistencies in the findings. Conducting additional tests on the evidence can help to confirm the initial results or uncover any errors that may change the interpretation of the findings. This process is important to maintain the integrity of the scientific method and ensure that the conclusions drawn from the evidence are accurate. Contacting the press or spreading the news before conducting further tests could lead to premature conclusions and could potentially damage the reputation of the archaeologist and the field of archaeology as a whole.

Question 11

College administrators are presented with mixed evidence that a recent initiative to increase first-year success among its students is effective.Based on results from the psychological literature,the administrators probably will decide to:
A)discontinue the program in the absence of clear evidence of effectiveness.
B)reduce funding for the program as a result of the ambiguous evidence.
C)continue to fund the program fully for one additional year with the intent to discontinue the program if the data next year are inconclusive.
D)continue to fund the program as a result of perceived encouraging evidence of effectiveness.

Accepted Answer

In situations with mixed evidence, decision-makers often focus on the positive aspects, especially if the initiative aligns with their goals, such as increasing first-year success among students. This optimism bias can lead to the continuation of funding in hopes of future positive outcomes.

Question 12

The public gets suckered into buying the latest weight-loss supplement from television infomercials featuring many testimonials that the supplement is effective,precisely because they rarely consider which question?
A)How expensive will this supplement be to use long term?
B)Do the side effects of the supplement outweigh the weight-loss benefits?
C)How many people have taken the supplement and not lost weight?
D)Is the supplement more effective than diet and exercise?

Accepted Answer

This question requires considering the possibility that the weight-loss supplement is not effective for everyone, and some individuals may not experience any positive results. Testimonials only provide anecdotal evidence, so it is important to consider that there may be many people who tried the supplement and did not achieve weight loss.

Question 13

The public is excited about a new cancer-fighting drug that has saved the lives of over 1,000 people diagnosed with terminal cancer in just the last year.People may misjudge the effectiveness of the drug,primarily because they rarely ask which question?
A)Does the expense of the drug make its use impractical?
B)What are the side effects of the drug?
C)Is the drug more effective than not obtaining any treatment?
D)How many people took the drug and nevertheless died?

Accepted Answer

It is important to consider how many people took the drug and still died, in order to accurately assess the effectiveness of the drug. Just because people are being saved by the drug, it does not necessarily mean that it is effective for everyone. Knowing the statistics on how many people took the drug and still died can help to provide a more complete picture of its effectiveness.

Question 14

The APA Code of Ethics does NOT mandate that psychologists must respect:
A)theory.
B)people.
C)animals.
D)the truth.

Accepted Answer

The APA Code of Ethics requires psychologists to respect people's dignity and privacy, maintain confidentiality, avoid harming clients, obtain informed consent, and so on. However, it does not mandate that psychologists must respect any particular theory, belief, or ideology. Similarly, the Code requires psychologists to consider animal welfare in research, teaching, and practice, but the Code does not specifically mandate that psychologists must respect animals per se. Finally, while the Code obligates psychologists to be truthful, accurate, and honest in their professional activities, it does not state that they must always prioritize the truth over other ethical principles.

Question 15

People are more critical of new evidence that is:
A)consistent with common sense.
B)consistent with their attitudes or beliefs.
C)inconsistent with their attitudes or beliefs.
D)presented using emotionally charged language.

Accepted Answer

People are more likely to resist or be critical of new evidence that goes against their pre-existing attitudes or beliefs. This is known as cognitive dissonance, where people experience discomfort and tension when new information contradicts what they already believe. This can lead to skepticism and more critical evaluation of the new evidence to try to maintain consistency with their existing beliefs.

Question 16

According to the textbook,the FIRST rule of critical thinking is to:
A)be skeptical of everything.
B)only trust what you observe.
C)doubt your own conclusions.
D)believe information published in scientific journals.

Accepted Answer

Doubting your own conclusions allows for self-reflection and the potential to correct any errors or biases in your thinking. It also promotes a willingness to consider alternative viewpoints and evidence, which is crucial for effective critical thinking. Being skeptical of everything or only trusting what you observe can limit your ability to consider new or contrary information, while blindly believing information published in scientific journals can lead to oversimplification and a failure to critically evaluate research findings.

Question 17

Jeff must find four sources for a term paper he is writing on corporal punishment (i.e. ,spanking).Jeff's family spanked him when he misbehaved as a child,and Jeff believes that it is a useful behavioral modification technique.If Jeff is like most people,he probably will:
A)find four studies suggesting that corporal punishment is effective and relatively harmless.
B)find four studies suggesting that corporal punishment is dangerous but then attempt to discredit this research.
C)review two studies on each side of the debate in a fair and balanced way.
D)change his mind once reviewing the evidence on both sides of the debate.

Accepted Answer

This behavior is an example of confirmation bias, where individuals tend to seek out information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or opinions.

Question 18

Consistent with psychological research,politicians tend to surround themselves with advisors who:
A)like to play devil's advocate and challenge the politicians' beliefs on policy issues.
B)validate the politicians' beliefs on most policy issues.
C)present both sides of a policy issue in a fair and balanced way.
D)spend more time objectively considering evidence that opposes the politicians' beliefs.

Accepted Answer

Politicians tend to surround themselves with advisors who validate their beliefs on most policy issues, which can lead to confirmation bias and a lack of consideration for alternative viewpoints. This is supported by research on political decision making and group dynamics.

Question 19

April must find four sources for a term paper she is writing on the effectiveness of public assistance such as welfare in combating poverty.April tends to oppose welfare on philosophical grounds.April probably will:
A)summarize four studies suggesting that welfare is actually effective in order to consciously guard against her known biases.
B)find four studies suggesting that welfare is effective but then attempt to discredit this research.
C)review two studies on each side of the debate in a fair and balanced way.
D)summarize four studies suggesting that welfare is ineffective at combating poverty.

Accepted Answer

Given April's philosophical opposition to welfare, it's likely she will select studies that confirm her existing beliefs, demonstrating a confirmation bias. This means she will probably choose studies that suggest welfare is ineffective at combating poverty.

Question 20

According to the textbook,the second rule of critical thinking is to:
A)be skeptical of everything.
B)only trust what you observe.
C)consider what you don't see.
D)believe information published in scientific journals.

Accepted Answer

The second rule of critical thinking is to consider what you don't see. This means taking into account information that may not be immediately obvious or readily available, and considering alternative explanations or perspectives. This is an important aspect of critical thinking, as it encourages you to question assumptions and investigate different possibilities, rather than simply accepting things at face value. Being skeptical of everything or only trusting what you observe are more extreme positions that can limit your ability to think critically and effectively. Believing information published in scientific journals can be a good starting point, but it is important to evaluate the quality of the research and consider alternative viewpoints before accepting any conclusions.

Quiz 2: Methods in Psychology-Part A

Doubting one's own conclusions is:

In order to develop your critical thinking skills,you should:

Participants in one study (Lord,Ross,& Lepper,1979) were first asked about their beliefs regarding the death penalty,and then they were provided with evidence both for and against it.After studying these materials,beliefs about the death penalty were reassessed.This study found that participants:

An archaeologist discovers new evidence suggesting humans inhabited a particular area long before it was originally believed.Because these results are so novel,if the archaeologist is critically thinking,she should first:

When presented with information that is inconsistent with their attitudes or beliefs,people generally ask themselves which question?

A psychologist discovers an important research finding in her laboratory that is seemingly inconsistent with what other researchers have found.Her new results have profound implications to our understanding of human behavior.If the psychologist is critically thinking,she should first:

An archaeologist discovers new evidence suggesting humans inhabited a particular area long before it was originally believed.Because these results are so novel,if the archaeologist is critically thinking,she should first:

Which statement about the role of missing evidence in decision making is TRUE?

An archaeologist discovers new evidence suggesting humans inhabited a particular area long before it was originally believed.If the archaeologist is critically thinking,she should first:

College administrators are presented with mixed evidence that a recent initiative to increase first-year success among its students is effective.Based on results from the psychological literature,the administrators probably will decide to:

The public gets suckered into buying the latest weight-loss supplement from television infomercials featuring many testimonials that the supplement is effective,precisely because they rarely consider which question?

The public is excited about a new cancer-fighting drug that has saved the lives of over 1,000 people diagnosed with terminal cancer in just the last year.People may misjudge the effectiveness of the drug,primarily because they rarely ask which question?

The APA Code of Ethics does NOT mandate that psychologists must respect:

People are more critical of new evidence that is:

According to the textbook,the FIRST rule of critical thinking is to:

Jeff must find four sources for a term paper he is writing on corporal punishment (i.e. ,spanking) .Jeff's family spanked him when he misbehaved as a child,and Jeff believes that it is a useful behavioral modification technique.If Jeff is like most people,he probably will:

Consistent with psychological research,politicians tend to surround themselves with advisors who:

April must find four sources for a term paper she is writing on the effectiveness of public assistance such as welfare in combating poverty.April tends to oppose welfare on philosophical grounds.April probably will:

According to the textbook,the second rule of critical thinking is to: