Question 1

Subjects in a study are asked to press a left-hand key if the image on a computer screen is a bird or a right-hand key if it is not a bird, and to respond as quickly as possible. On any given trial, they may see a bird or some other image (e.g., window, car, pencil, cow, flower, paintbrush, etc.). On one trial, an image of a penguin is flashed on the screen and a subject responds by pressing the "not a bird" key. This error could be explained by _______ theory, specifically by using the argument that a penguin does not resemble a typical bird.
A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature
D) exemplar

Accepted Answer

Prototype theory suggests that people categorize objects and concepts based on a mental image or the most typical example of a particular category. In this case, the subject might have pressed the "not a bird" key because a penguin does not closely resemble their prototype (or most typical example) of a bird, which likely includes features such as flying, having feathers, and a certain body shape that a penguin does not match.

Question 2

Subjects in a study are asked to press a left-hand key if the image on a computer screen is a bird or a right-hand key if it is not a bird, and to respond as quickly as possible. On any given trial they may see a bird or some other image (e.g., window, car, pencil, cow, flower, paintbrush, etc.). On one trial, an image of a bat is flashed on screen and a subject responds by pressing the left-hand "is a bird" key. This error could be explained by _______ theory, specifically by using the argument that a bat shares a number of characteristics with birds.
A) transfer
B) prototype
C) feature
D) exemplar

Accepted Answer

The feature theory suggests that objects are recognized by their features. A bat shares features with birds, such as wings and the ability to fly, which could lead to the error.

Question 3

Prototype theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by
A) learning which features are rewarded and which are nonrewarded.
B) memorizing all training stimuli and responding to new stimuli based on their similarity to each training stimulus.
C) developing a generic or average image and comparing new stimuli to that holistic image.
D) avoiding stimuli that lack a key feature of the original training stimuli.

Accepted Answer

Prototype theory posits that people form a mental image that represents the average or most typical features of a class of objects, concepts, or events. This "prototype" then serves as a reference point for identifying new stimuli by comparing them to this generic or average image.

Question 4

Feature theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by
A) learning which features are rewarded and which are nonrewarded.
B) memorizing all training stimuli and responding to new stimuli based on their similarity to each training stimulus.
C) developing a generic or average image and comparing new stimuli to that holistic image.
D) avoiding stimuli that lack a key feature of the original training stimuli.

Accepted Answer

Feature theory posits that subjects learn concepts by identifying and distinguishing between features that are rewarded and those that are not, focusing on specific attributes rather than holistic images or memorization.

Question 5

Exemplar theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by
A) learning which features are rewarded and which are nonrewarded.
B) memorizing all training stimuli and responding to new stimuli based on their similarity to each training stimulus.
C) developing a generic or average image and comparing new stimuli to that holistic image.
D) avoiding stimuli that lack a key feature of the original training stimuli.

Accepted Answer

Exemplar theory posits that individuals learn and categorize by memorizing specific instances (exemplars) of stimuli and then use these memories to classify new stimuli based on their resemblance to stored exemplars.

Question 6

Responding on a generalization gradient will
A) be flat if the subject cannot distinguish between the training and the comparison stimuli.
B) be steep if the subject is tested with a variety of comparison stimuli similar to the training stimulus.
C) peak at a comparison stimulus similar to the training stimulus, rather than at the training stimulus.
D) extinguish rapidly during testing, with the largest drop in responding occurring to the training stimulus.

Accepted Answer

If the subject cannot distinguish between the training and the comparison stimuli, the generalization gradient will be flat, indicating no discrimination between stimuli.

Question 7

Subjects' responses are likely to demonstrate a sharper or steeper generalization gradient if the researchers use A) one intense stimulus as the S^D or training stimulus. B) one intense stimulus as the S^D and one weak stimulus as the S^Δ training stimulus. C) two intense stimuli as the S^D and S^Δ training stimuli. D) two similar stimuli as the S^D and S^Δ training stimuli.

Accepted Answer

Using two similar stimuli as the training stimuli tends to produce a sharper or steeper generalization gradient because it makes it more difficult for subjects to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli, leading to a more precise response to stimuli that are very close to the conditioned stimulus.

Question 8

Which statement about generalization gradients is false? A) Generalization gradients produced by discrimination training are steeper than those produced by a single stimulus exposure. B) Responding always falls off reliably as the difference between the test and training stimuli increases. C) Generalization gradients become increasingly sharper or steeper the more similar the two training stimuli are. D) The peak of responding on a generalization gradient is less likely to be at the S^D training stimulus as the S^D and S^Δbecome more similar.

Accepted Answer

Responding does not always fall off reliably as the difference between the test and training stimuli increases; it depends on the specifics of the training and the stimuli involved.

Question 9

Which conclusion is supported by the figure below?

A) Inhibition produces a flatter gradient than excitation.
B) Inhibition is stronger than excitation.
C) Peak shift in behavior should be observed for both excitation and inhibition.
D) Peak shift was not observed.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Which conclusion is supported by the figure...

Question 10

Peak shift is said to occur when two A) stimuli are so similar that subjects have difficulty distinguishing between them, and thus the peak of the responses shifts so that they respond similarly to both. B) discriminative stimuli are very similar and produce maximal responding to a stimulus near the S^Dand away from the S^Δ. C) similar stimuli are reinforced and produce a broader peak of maximal responding to more stimuli than would have occurred if only one stimulus had been reinforced. D) discriminative stimuli are dissimilar and produce maximal responding to a stimulus midway between the S^Dand the S^Δ.

Accepted Answer

Peak shift occurs when an organism is trained to discriminate between two stimuli and then shows a shift in the peak of its response rate towards a stimulus that is further away from the non-reinforced stimulus than the original reinforced stimulus. This happens because the organism not only learns to respond to the positive stimulus but also to avoid the negative stimulus, causing a shift in the peak response away from the negative stimulus.

Question 11

Spence assumed that excitatory and inhibitory gradients interact,
A) magnifying the effect of both gradients.
B) opposing or reducing the effect of both gradients.
C) but that excitatory gradients are stronger and tend to cancel the effects of inhibitory gradients.
D) but that inhibitory gradients are stronger and tend to cancel the effects of excitatory gradients.

Accepted Answer

Spence's theory posits that excitatory and inhibitory gradients interact in a way that they oppose or reduce the effect of each other, rather than one cancelling out or overpowering the other. This interaction is fundamental to understanding how conflicting motivations can influence behavior.

Question 12

Peak shift is most likely to occur when researchers use a _______ as the S^D and a _______ as the S^Δ. A) low tone; bright light B) loud tone; bright light C) blue light; violet light D) high-pitched tone; low-pitched buzzer

Accepted Answer

Peak shift occurs when discrimination training leads to a preference for stimuli that are even further from the non-reinforced stimulus than the reinforced stimulus. Using colors like blue and violet, which are close on the color spectrum, makes it easier to observe this phenomenon, as the shift from the reinforced blue light to a preference for an even more distinct stimulus, like violet light, can be more easily measured.

Question 13

If pigeons are given grain when a 600 nm light is on the key, and no grain when a 580 nm light is on the key, the subjects during testing are likely to respond most to a key lighted with a _______ light.
A) 590 nm
B) 560 nm
C) 630 nm
D) 600 nm
E) 570 nm

Accepted Answer

The answer of If pigeons are given grain when a...

Question 14

Which statement is not a reason for researchers' interest in the peak shift phenomenon?
A) It produces paradoxically high responding to a stimulus that has never been directly reinforced.
B) It illustrates the role of inhibition in discrimination learning.
C) It may affect the evolution of physical differences among members of a species.
D) It provides an explanation for aspects of polymorphous concept learning.

Accepted Answer

The peak shift phenomenon is primarily related to discrimination learning and does not directly explain polymorphous concept learning, which involves recognizing concepts with variable features.

Question 15

Travis asks a girl with three visible tattoos to dance with him at a party, and she says no. He then asks another girl, who has no tattoos, to dance, and she says yes. Later he sees two other girls: one has three tattoos, like the girl who turned him down, and the other has six tattoos. He asks the girl with three tattoos to dance. Travis is exhibiting
A) peak shift.
B) category learning.
C) perceptual learning.
D) transposition.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Travis asks a girl with three visible...

Question 16

Spence's theory suggests that transposition effects occur due to
A) learning that has taken place about the relationships between stimuli (e.g., which stimulus is brighter than another).
B) the interaction of excitatory and inhibitory gradients.
C) the overshadowing of the inhibitory gradient by the excitatory gradient.
D) the extinction of excitatory responding during extinction testing.

Accepted Answer

Spence's theory posits that transposition effects are due to the interaction of excitatory and inhibitory gradients, where the learned response is influenced by the relative strengths of these gradients.

Question 17

Perceptual learning refers to a situation in which
A) sensory discriminations facilitate the subsequent discrimination learning of a motor response.
B) sensory discriminations facilitate insight learning and imitation.
C) simple nonreinforced exposure to stimuli facilitates subsequent discrimination learning.
D) reinforcement of a particular stimulus (e.g., red light) facilitates discrimination learning between stimuli in the same stimulus dimension (e.g., red + versus green - ).

Accepted Answer

Perceptual learning involves the improvement in the ability to respond to or discriminate between stimuli following exposure to those stimuli, without the need for explicit reinforcement during the exposure phase. This process enhances the individual's sensitivity to differences in stimuli, making it easier to distinguish between them in future learning tasks.

Question 18

Perceptual learning initially appears to contradict the assumptions of many conditioning theories because these theories predict that
A) only humans have the cognitive capacity to engage in perceptual learning.
B) blocking should occur, thereby retarding discrimination learning.
C) relational learning should occur, thus facilitating discrimination among stimuli with common features.
D) latent inhibition should occur, thereby retarding learning.

Accepted Answer

Conditioning theories predict that latent inhibition, where prior exposure to a stimulus without reinforcement makes it harder to learn about that stimulus later, should retard learning. However, perceptual learning shows that prior exposure can actually facilitate learning, contradicting this prediction.

Question 19

Reduced conditioning due to latent inhibition is
A) a threat to observing perceptual learning.
B) not a threat to observing perceptual learning because the difference between the responses to two stimuli is being studied, not the absolute levels of conditioning.
C) ultimately unrelated to perceptual learning.
D) what develops between the unique elements of different stimuli, accounting for aspects of perceptual learning.

Accepted Answer

Latent inhibition refers to the phenomenon where a familiar stimulus takes longer to acquire meaning (as a signal or conditioned stimulus) than a new stimulus. In the context of perceptual learning, which involves differentiating between stimuli, reduced conditioning due to latent inhibition is not a threat because the focus is on the relative difference in responses to stimuli, not the absolute levels of conditioning. This means that even if latent inhibition affects the speed or strength with which a stimulus is conditioned, it does not impede the ability to observe and study the differential responses that are central to perceptual learning.

Question 20

Which mechanism has not been proposed as an explanation for perceptual learning?
A) The common elements of two stimuli develop more latent inhibition than the unique elements, and thus less generalization and confusion occur between the two stimuli.
B) The common element will produce retrieval-generated priming of one of the unique elements that will not occur, and thus the unique elements will become inhibitory signals for each other.
C) Complex stimuli have such a large number of features that only a fraction are sampled at any one time. In pre-exposure, more and more features are linked to one another, thereby producing pattern completion when just a subset of features is presented.
D) The elements of the stimuli contribute to latent learning that is not manifest in behavior due to a lack of motivation. Perceptual learning is another case of the learning performance distinction: When no incentive is present, a behavior is less likely to occur.

Accepted Answer

Explanation: Options A, B, and C all describe mechanisms that involve specific interactions between elements of stimuli or features that contribute directly to perceptual learning through processes like latent inhibition, retrieval-generated priming, and pattern completion. Option D, however, describes latent learning in a general sense, focusing on the learning-performance distinction related to motivation rather than a mechanism specific to perceptual learning. This makes it the correct choice as the mechanism not proposed for perceptual learning, as it does not directly explain how perceptual learning occurs through interaction with or differentiation between stimuli features.

Quiz 8: How Stimuli Guide Instrumental Action

Prototype theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

Feature theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

Exemplar theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

Responding on a generalization gradient will

Subjects' responses are likely to demonstrate a sharper or steeper generalization gradient if the researchers use

Which statement about generalization gradients is false?

Which conclusion is supported by the figure below?

Peak shift is said to occur when two

Spence assumed that excitatory and inhibitory gradients interact,

Peak shift is most likely to occur when researchers use a _ as the S^D and a _ as the S^Δ.

If pigeons are given grain when a 600 nm light is on the key, and no grain when a 580 nm light is on the key, the subjects during testing are likely to respond most to a key lighted with a _______ light.

Which statement is not a reason for researchers' interest in the peak shift phenomenon?

Spence's theory suggests that transposition effects occur due to

Perceptual learning refers to a situation in which

Perceptual learning initially appears to contradict the assumptions of many conditioning theories because these theories predict that

Reduced conditioning due to latent inhibition is

Which mechanism has not been proposed as an explanation for perceptual learning?

Quiz 8: How Stimuli Guide Instrumental Action

Prototype theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

Feature theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

Exemplar theory assumes that subjects learn a concept by

Responding on a generalization gradient will

Subjects' responses are likely to demonstrate a sharper or steeper generalization gradient if the researchers use

Which statement about generalization gradients is false?

Which conclusion is supported by the figure below?

Peak shift is said to occur when two

Spence assumed that excitatory and inhibitory gradients interact,

Peak shift is most likely to occur when researchers use a _______ as the SD and a _______ as the SΔ.

If pigeons are given grain when a 600 nm light is on the key, and no grain when a 580 nm light is on the key, the subjects during testing are likely to respond most to a key lighted with a _______ light.

Which statement is not a reason for researchers' interest in the peak shift phenomenon?

Spence's theory suggests that transposition effects occur due to

Perceptual learning refers to a situation in which

Perceptual learning initially appears to contradict the assumptions of many conditioning theories because these theories predict that

Reduced conditioning due to latent inhibition is

Which mechanism has not been proposed as an explanation for perceptual learning?

Peak shift is most likely to occur when researchers use a _ as the S^D and a _ as the S^Δ.