Deck 4: Learning and Memory

Question 1

________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is caused by experience.

A)Adjustment
B)Shaping
C)Reinforcement
D)Learning

Answer 1

Learning

Question 2

Which of the following occurs when a customer learns that two products are different even though the packages of both products look similar?

A)Extinction
B)Brand equity
C)Stimulus generalisation
D)Stimulus discrimination

Answer 2

D

Question 3

The popular marketing technique known as ________ marketing applies the principles of instrumental conditioning by reinforcing regular purchases; consumers are given rewards with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

A)rebate
B)discount
C)reward
D)frequency

Answer 3

frequency

Question 4

Behavioural learning theorists do not focus on internal thought processes; rather, they look to external evidence to study learning.What aspects of the environment are of most concern to behaviourists in studying learning?

A)Energy and work
B)Stimulus and response
C)Thought and memory
D)Sensation and perception

Question 5

Much learning takes effort and time, but some learning is so casual as to be unintentional.This type of learning is referred to as ________ learning.

A)stage one
B)subliminal
C)incidental
D)evoked

Question 6

If a woman gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume, she is more likely to keep buying the product and wearing it.What type of instrumental conditioning has occurred in the situation?

A)Neutral reinforcement
B)Positive reinforcement
C)Negative reinforcement
D)Symbolic reinforcement

Question 7

________ was first demonstrated in experiments performed on dogs by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals.

A)Instrumental conditioning
B)Classical conditioning
C)Cognitive conditioning
D)Extinction conditioning

Question 8

Family branding, licensing and look-alike packaging are all marketing strategies based on ________.

A)stimulus generalisation
B)the spacing effect
C)stimulus discrimination
D)extinction

Question 9

Another name for instrumental conditioning is ________ conditioning.

A)operant
B)neoclassical
C)stimulus
D)reward

Question 10

Classical conditioning takes place when a(n) ________ is continuously matched with a(n) ________.

A)conditioned stimulus; conditioned response
B)unconditioned response; conditioned response
C)conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
D)unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response

Question 11

What mechanism is used when a consumer learns to perform responses that produce positive outcomes?

A)Extinction
B)Punishment
C)Negative reinforcement
D)Positive reinforcement

Question 12

Stimulus generalisation refers to ________.

A)the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature
B)the fact that most conditioned stimuli are similar to unconditioned stimuli
C)the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus (CS) to evoke similar, conditioned responses
D)the tendency for extinction to occur when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus

Question 13

A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume she wears.In learning terms, the stimulus-response connection has weakened.Which of the following processes best explains what has occurred in the example?

A)Negative reinforcement
B)Extinction
C)Discrimination
D)Generalisation

Question 14

In instrumental conditioning, what is the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment?

A)There is no difference.They are two words for the same thing.
B)Negative reinforcement can occur when a stimulus is positive, and punishment occurs when a stimulus is painful.
C)Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs when an action causes a negative outcome.
D)Negative reinforcement creates a preference for negative results, while punishment teaches people to avoid negative results.

Question 15

If a conditioned stimulus is only occasionally matched with an unconditioned stimulus, the association between the two will weaken.This is called ________.

A)generalisation
B)interference
C)the spacing effect
D)extinction

Question 16

Determining the most effective reinforcement schedule to use with consumers is important to marketers.What type of reinforcement schedule is most likely being used when, after a period of time has passed, the first response a consumer makes brings the reward?

A)Fixed-interval reinforcement
B)Variable-interval reinforcement
C)Fixed-ratio reinforcement
D)Variable-ratio reinforcement

Question 17

According to the theory of classical conditioning, ________ should be encouraged by promoting the unique attributes of a well-established brand.

A)stimulus generalisation
B)the halo effect
C)stimulus discrimination
D)extinction

Question 18

The researcher and theorist most associated with instrumental conditioning is ________.

A)Pavlov
B)Skinner
C)Keller
D)Werner

Question 19

Which theory listed below assumes that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events?

A)Behavioural learning
B)Episodic learning
C)Incidental learning
D)Gestalt learning

Question 20

A department store decides to use 'mystery shoppers' at unannounced times to test for service quality among its personnel.Store personnel are rewarded for excellent service attitudes.Which of the following reinforcement schedules would most likely apply in this situation?

A)Fixed-ratio reinforcement
B)Fixed-interval reinforcement
C)Variable-frequency reinforcement
D)Variable-interval reinforcement

Question 21

Before starting at university, Erica had mostly worn khakis and button-down shirts.Now, after being at university for a few months, she has begun to modify her wardrobe and now mostly wears ripped jeans and T-shirts.Erica has undergone the process of

A)symbolic representation
B)assimilation
C)accommodation
D)instructional scaffolding

Question 22

According to the definition of learning, how could a researcher ever show that cognitive learning had taken place in a subject?

A)By removing the conditioned stimulus
B)By measuring a behavioural change that could directly be tied to a previous experience
C)By measuring the brainwave pattern of the subject
D)By relying upon an intuitive feel for the amount of learning the subject had experienced

Question 23

In the 1960s, Jerome Bruner suggested the term ________, which stated that people learn based on progressing through three stages.

A)instructional scaffolding
B)cognitive learning theory
C)endowed progress effect
D)gamification

Question 24

John wants to teach his dog to do tricks such as 'sit up,' 'roll over,' and 'fetch a stick.' By systematically rewarding his dog for responding in the correct way, John is able to accomplish great progress over a 30-day period.John was able to teach his dog using which of the following learning processes?

A)Classical conditioning
B)Instrumental conditioning
C)Stimulation conditioning
D)Extinction conditioning

Question 25

Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his lecturer attempt to explain the 'black box' process and its connection with learning.He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls and his mouth begins to water.He looks around and sees a student in the last row bite into a large cinnamon roll.'I wish I were sitting next to him,' Frank thinks, 'because I know I could steal a bite'.What Frank just went through in class was similar to the 'black box' process being described by his lecturer.What learning has taken place in this scenario?

A)Incidental learning
B)Gestalt learning
C)Cognitive learning
D)Behavioural learning

Question 26

What type of learning theory emphasises that people are problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment?

A)Instrumental conditioning
B)Classical conditioning
C)Cognitive learning
D)Operant conditioning

Question 27

________ memories relate to events that are personally relevant; therefore, a person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong.

A)Sensory
B)Episodic
C)Primary
D)Elaborative

Question 28

On her first visit to China, Jane did not know how to pay for the produce she had selected at a market.She watched several Chinese women pay for their selections and then Jane copied their behaviour.In this example, Jane used ________.

A)shaping
B)stimulus discrimination
C)modelling
D)stimulus generalisation

Question 29

A sales manager pays a bonus to new trainees when they develop a good sales prospectus.Later, after the trainees have completed two months of training, the manager pays a bonus only for an actual sale.The manager is applying what process of instrumental conditioning to help the trainees be productive in their sales careers?

A)Shaping
B)Modelling
C)Negative reinforcement
D)Variable-ratio reinforcement

Question 30

Considering the environmental approach to cognitive learning, which type of learning is the most complex?

A)Instructional representation
B)Enactive representation
C)Symbolic representation
D)Iconic representation

Question 31

Sam was humming the Mortein Louie the Fly jingle as he was driving down the expressway.A thought suddenly occurs to him: 'Why am I humming this stupid jingle? I don't buy this stuff or even need it!' Sam knows this jingle through ________.

A)stimulus generalisation
B)reinforcement modelling
C)incidental learning
D)operant conditioning

Question 32

Claudia Norman was a marketing consultant.She recommended that brand equity for a new environmentally friendly product could be established by giving her initial customers free memberships in the Green Peace Organisation.Claudia used which of the following in her recommendation?

A)Promotional conditioning
B)Emotional learning
C)Classical conditioning
D)Instrumental conditioning

Question 33

According to the information-processing approach to studying the memory process, in the ________ stage, information enters in a way the system will recognise.

A)storage
B)retrieval
C)encoding
D)decoding

Question 34

Which type of reinforcement best characterises what an individual would typically experience while fishing?

A)Fixed-interval reinforcement
B)Variable-interval reinforcement
C)Fixed-ratio reinforcement
D)Mixed-ratio reinforcement

Question 35

________ learning occurs when an individual watches the actions of others and notes the reinforcements they receive for their behaviours.

A)Observational
B)Reinforced
C)Halo effect
D)Masked

Question 36

A stimulus that cues one toward a particular pattern and can activate a reaction is known as a ________.

A)primer
B)trigger feature
C)scaffold
D)model

Question 37

Herbal companies traditionally sold their products in cylinder-shaped plastic containers that were very characteristic of the herbal market.One company broke with tradition and began to sell its herbal products in bottles that appeared to be straight from the pharmacy's shelf.They were rectangular with white labels that looked very professional and very serious.Sales went through the roof.What form of stimulus generalisation seems to be working for the herbal company?

A)Masked branding
B)Piggybacking
C)Continual reinforcement
D)Shaping

Question 38

________ involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed.

A)Memory
B)Recognition
C)Comprehension
D)Attention

Question 39

________ memory permits temporary storage of information we receive from our senses.

A)Elaborative
B)Sensory
C)Cognitive
D)Working

Question 40

Scott thought of himself as a very successful marketer.He created a campaign with a product logo that was very popular and which customers associated with a quality product.It was so popular that in a few months the logo began to appear almost everywhere.Instead of increasing sales of the product, the customer demand began to decrease as competitors' products became more successful.What characteristic of learning was ruining Scott's apparent success?

A)Too much repetition was decreasing the strength of the CS, thus leading to extinction of the learned relationship between the logo, the quality of the product and the association with Scott's company.
B)Customers confused Scott's logo with the logos of Scott's competitors, making cognitive learning incomplete.
C)The logo produced only a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement that did not sustain sales, while Scott's competitors used a variable-ratio schedule.
D)Over time the logo became boring, and customers punished Scott's company by buying competitors' products as a type of revenge for their boredom.

Question 41

Within a knowledge structure, which of the following is the LEAST complex knowledge unit?

A)Meaning
B)Proposition
C)Schema
D)Script

Question 42

When Pavlov's famous dogs responded to a bell signalling feeding time, they were exhibiting what is called classical conditioning.

Question 43

Many marketers use 'the good old days' as a common theme in promotional messages.This is a strategy of focusing on ________.

A)the highlighting effect
B)the halo effect
C)nostalgia
D)memory spikes

Question 44

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is caused by experience.

Question 45

When Shira was a young girl, her teacher gave her a sticker every time she earned above 90 per cent on a test.Shira's teacher was using classical conditioning.

Question 46

Behavioural theorists rely on internal mental states to explain learning.

Question 47

Secret shoppers may be used by marketers to test the effectiveness of service quality among employees.This is a form of variable-interval reinforcement.

Question 48

Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.

Question 49

People tend to give 'yes' responses to questions, regardless of what they are asked.This is an example of ________.

A)response bias
B)elaborative rehearsal
C)salience
D)nostalgia

Question 50

The two major approaches associated with behavioural learning theory are classical conditioning and observational learning.

Question 51

When a company engages in a 'piggybacking strategy,' it is hoping that customers will be able to discriminate between the company's product and a competitor's product.

Question 52

Erika landed a job as an analyst for a small marketing research firm whose task was to observe and probe patient behaviours at a small suburban clinic.In her study, she noticed that many of the patients had a tendency to underestimate the time since their last doctor visit.The memory lapse she observed was due to a memory problem called ________.

A)omitting
B)averaging
C)telescoping
D)normalising

Question 53

Fixed-interval reinforcement explains why airlines' frequent flyer programs are so successful.

Question 54

Susan picks and runs her focus groups carefully.She wants to make sure that each focus group member provides meaningful information for her research purpose.As she is examining potential focus group candidates, she notices that three men and two women seem to provide 'yes' answers regardless of what she asks them.They seem to want to be on the focus group very badly and appear eager to be 'good subjects.' If Susan follows prudent testing methodology, she should reject these test subjects in order to avoid the possibility of which of the following biases?

A)Neophyte bias
B)Order bias
C)Response bias
D)Affinity bonding bias

Question 55

As May-Lee considers her purchase of perfume, she shifts back and forth between thinking about claims made by the different brands, remembering ads she has seen, and considering her emotional responses to the various brands.Which of the following processes most accurately describes what May-Lee is going through?

A)Spreading activation
B)Advertising decay
C)Polar parallels
D)Scalar processing

Question 56

'It's time for the Christmas shopping list,' thought Martha's mother, so she asked Martha for a quick list of her favourite perfumes.Martha gave her mother six names that were all her 'favourite.' This group constitutes Martha's ________ for perfume.

A)position set
B)activation set
C)rational set
D)evoked set

Question 57

Consumers' attraction to poker machines can be explained by the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule the machines use.

Question 58

Melissa knows that when she goes to the dentist she must make an appointment, show up on time, bring proof of insurance, and have her teeth cleaned before any other dental services will be performed.With respect to her visit to the dentist, Melissa has learned a schema known as a(n) ________.

A)service script
B)evoked set
C)proposition
D)elaborative rehearsal

Question 59

Memories of products are often replaced (forgotten) as we learn additional information.This displacement of information is called ________.

A)the highlighting effect
B)interference
C)decay
D)generalisation

Question 60

John Deere established a reputation for building dependable farm tractors.When the company began to build small yard tractors, it insisted on using the same logo on its small mowers as on its large tractors.John Deere was applying stimulus generalisation through look-alike packaging.

Question 61

Define the terms 'learning' and 'incidental learning.'

Question 62

Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately thinks of an ad she has seen that discusses the heart-healthy benefits of Cheerios.This is an illustration of a stimulus-response connection.

Question 63

Variable reinforcements result in behaviour that is more difficult to extinguish than fixed schedules.Why?

Question 64

Gradually changing the package of a product that depends heavily on brand loyalty can be successful if each change is minor.Over the course of a year or more the package may change totally in appearance without offending or confusing brand loyal customers.What factors influencing forgetting allow this marketing strategy to work?

Question 65

Imitating the behaviour of others is called modelling.

Question 66

One of the goals of successful marketing is to have potential customers think of the marketer's product whenever they try to remember products within a certain category.This remembered set of products is called an evoked set.

Question 67

When you meet someone new, your reaction is likely activated by a trigger feature.

Question 68

A mother observes her daughter stirring batter in a bowl just the way she does when she bakes.The daughter has modelled her mother's behaviour.

Question 69

Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes.

Question 70

Give a brief explanation of cognitive learning.

Question 71

The observational learning process begins with a step called motivation.

Question 72

Iconic representation is a type of learning that is achieved largely unconsciously through action or movement and can be difficult for people to describe.

Question 73

The process of stimulus generalisation is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalise on consumers' positive associations with an existing brand or company name.In this context, list and briefly discuss the four strategies based on stimulus generalisation presented in the text.

Question 74

The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility (i.e.frequency of price changes).

Question 75

Retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from long-term memory.

Question 76

The process where we respond to a situation based on our existing knowledge is known as accommodation.

Question 77

Discuss what stimulus generalisation and stimulus discrimination are and present an example of each that is relevant to the field of marketing.

Question 78

Compare and contrast classical and instrumental (operant) conditioning.

Question 79

Marketers assist in the process called elaborative rehearsal when they use catchy slogans or jingles to help consumers remember information about products or services.

Question 80

An important factor in instrumental (operant) conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for a behaviour.The chapter discusses four possible schedules of reinforcement.Briefly describe each schedule and give a short example.Be sure to use the proper terminology for each schedule.