Deck 4: Learning in Context

Question 1

Primary reinforcers are stimuli that:

A)Satisfy biological needs.
B)Are the most effective of all reinforcers.
C)Work only with students in the lower elementary grades.
D)Are effective even when presented before the desired response.

Answer 1

Satisfy biological needs.

Question 2

Which one of the following is the best example of the use of an activity reinforcer?

A)Getting a new outfit that you think is "cool"
B)Being told that you did a good job
C)Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework
D)Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Answer 2

Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework

Question 3

In the middle of a difficult exam,Robert tells his teacher that his stomach hurts,and the teacher immediately sends him to the school nurse. On several later occasions when he has a difficult test or assignment,Robert again tells his teacher that he doesn't feel well. Each time he is sent to the school nurse before he has completed his work. From an operant conditioning perspective,we can say that Robert is:

A)Experiencing removal punishment for complaining about his stomach.
B)Being negatively reinforced for complaining about his stomach.
C)Being intermittently reinforced for complaining about his stomach.
D)Showing a tendency to delay gratification.

Answer 3

Being negatively reinforced for complaining about his stomach.

Question 4

The term negative reinforcement can best be described as a situation in which:

A)Something the learner wants is presented after a response.
B)Something the learner wants is taken away after a response.
C)Something the learner doesn't want is presented after a response.
D)Something the learner doesn't want is taken away after a response.

Question 5

Operant conditioning theorists use the term reinforcement rather than "reward" because:

A)The term "reward" implies a consequence that others would judge to be desirable.
B)One type of reinforcement (negative reinforcement)is actually a form of punishment.
C)The term "reward" can refer only to a material reinforcer.
D)The term "reward" can refer only to a social reinforcer.

Question 6

Bill's behaviors in Ms. Kennedy's class are really distracting to other students. For example,he whispers to the boy beside him when Ms. Kennedy is giving directions on how to do any assignment. He flings paper clips at a girl across the room. He makes strange grunting noises that a few classmates find amusing. Ms. Kennedy glares at him or admonishes him whenever he behaves in a distracting way,yet his inappropriate behaviors are increasing rather than decreasing. Which one of the following interpretations best explains why Bill's behaviors are increasing?

A)Ms. Kennedy is positively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
B)Ms. Kennedy is negatively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
C)Ms. Kennedy is vicariously reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
D)Ms. Kennedy is punishing him for the distracting behaviors.

Question 7

A police officer visits Ms. Duhaime's first-grade class one morning to talk about safety precautions at home and on the street. The students listen quietly and attentively while the officer speaks. At the end of the visit,the officer and teacher agree that the students' good behavior warrants some kind of reinforcement. Given what we know about effective reinforcers at different grade levels,their best choice would be:

A)An official-looking "good behavior" certificate given at the school's award ceremony the following week.
B)Plastic toy police "badges" handed out just before the officer leaves.
C)A letter home to parents describing the children's good behavior.
D)Twenty minutes of free time at the end of the day.

Question 8

Only one of the following could be a primary reinforcer. Which one?

A)An electronic tablet,such as an iPad
B)Money
C)A glass of water
D)Praise

Question 9

Three of the following are examples of people or dogs who have been conditioned through operant conditioning. Which one is not?

A)Andrew gives his dog Maggie a scrap of food from his plate whenever Maggie begs at the dinner table. Before long,Maggie is by Andrew's side begging at every meal.
B)Bart uses obscene words when he speaks in class. His teacher scolds him for such language in front of his classmates. Much to the teacher's dismay,Bart's use of obscene words increases.
C)Carol's room has been a disaster area for more than a month,with toys and clothes lying about everywhere. Carol's mother has told Carol that,once the room has been cleaned,they will spend a day at the zoo. There is no noticeable improvement in Carol's housekeeping habits.
D)Daniel once went to visit the elderly woman next door,and she gave him a couple of homemade cookies. Now Daniel goes to see the woman almost every day after school and comes home a half an hour later still licking crumbs off his lips.

Question 10

Which one of the following statements best describes positive reinforcement?

A)Reinforcement consists of getting something a learner finds desirable.
B)Reinforcement consists of getting rid of something a learner finds unpleasant.
C)A desirable classroom behavior is reinforced.
D)An inappropriate classroom behavior is reinforced.

Question 11

Which one of the following is the best example of a social reinforcer?

A)Getting a new outfit that you think is "cool"
B)Being told that you did a good job
C)Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework
D)Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Question 12

Which one of the following is the best example of intrinsic reinforcement?

A)Getting a new outfit that you think is "cool"
B)Being told that you did a good job
C)Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework
D)Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Question 13

Good grades are reinforcing to some students but not to others. Someone explaining this fact from an operant conditioning perspective would say that good grades are most likely to be reinforcers to students who:

A)Come from middle- or upper-income families.
B)Have been told that good grades can help them get a scholarship.
C)Have previously associated grades with other reinforcers.
D)Have never received a grade above C.

Question 14

A teacher wants to encourage her students to work cooperatively with one another as they study classroom subject matter. Which one of the following strategies reflects the principle that some antecedent stimuli tend to elicit certain kinds of responses?

A)Praise students after they cooperate with one another.
B)Use mild punishment with students who are not working cooperatively with one another.
C)Say "I like how Sally and John are helping one another today" loudly enough that other students can hear.
D)Provide instructional materials that students can use only by working together.

Question 15

Ms. Aguilar's third-grade students enjoy art and spend much of their free time drawing and painting. If she tells them,"You can paint as soon as you finish your arithmetic problems," she is providing:

A)Negative reinforcement.
B)An activity reinforcer.
C)An intrinsic reinforcer.
D)Intermittent reinforcement.

Question 16

Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

A)When Kevin does his homework,his teacher praises him profusely,to the point that it embarrasses him.
B)When Kathleen insults another student while waiting in line for lunch,her teacher moves her to the end of the line.
C)When Edward complains about a classmate who is picking on him,his teacher allows him to come in from recess on a bitterly cold day.
D)When Priscilla answers a teacher's question incorrectly,one of her classmates teases her unmercifully.

Question 17

One common educational practice is to chart students' progress over time so that students can see their own improvement. These progress charts often lead to higher student achievement in the absence of other observable forms of reinforcement. The effectiveness of such charts in changing behavior illustrates the role of reinforcement as:

A)Positive feedback.
B)Cueing.
C)An immediate,rather than delayed,consequence.
D)An alternative to school-wide standardized achievement testing.

Question 18

In three of the following situations,positive reinforcement is occurring. In which situation is positive reinforcement not occurring?

A)Sara begins behaving better in class when Ms. Jones allows her to spend extra time with her friends for exhibiting appropriate behavior.
B)Mr. Lewis consistently praises Mark for completing his independent seatwork on time,and Mark's work habits improve.
C)Ms. Villareal scolds Jeremy every time he speaks out of turn,but Jeremy's speaking out is increasing rather than decreasing.
D)Mr. Salazar smiles at Ellen every time she acts appropriately toward her classmates,but Ellen's social behaviors don't change.

Question 19

The basic idea underlying operant conditioning is that:

A)Responses are learned primarily through repetition.
B)Responses are affected by the consequences that follow them.
C)Learners are more motivated to acquire some behaviors than others.
D)Stimulus-response associations,once learned,are permanent.

Question 20

Stacey dislikes physical education class because her classmates tease her about her lack of strength and coordination. One day Stacey unintentionally hits one of her classmates,and the teacher sends her to the principal's office for the remainder of the class session. Stacey becomes increasingly aggressive in class and so spends more and more time in the principal's office. From an operant conditioning perspective,we can explain this situation by saying that Stacey is:

A)Being vicariously reinforced for her aggression.
B)Being punished for her aggression.
C)Being negatively reinforced for her aggression.
D)Undergoing extinction in her aggression.

Question 21

Which one of the following statements best describes vicarious reinforcement?

A)Anticipating future reinforcement
B)Receiving reinforcement after behaving inappropriately
C)Remembering reinforcement that one has previously received
D)Watching someone else receive reinforcement for a behavior

Question 22

Which one of the following is the best example of a symbolic model?

A)A detective on a television show
B)The school principal
C)An older brother or sister
D)A police officer who lives next door

Question 23

George enjoys being on the debating team,but he is taken off the team when he inadvertently utters an obscene word during a debate. Being taken off the team is an example of:

A)Presentation punishment.
B)Removal punishment.
C)Reinforcement of an incompatible behavior.
D)Negative reinforcement.

Question 24

Which of the following is an example of vicarious punishment?

A)Alice notices that her friend Ellen gets extra attention from the teacher when she acts helpless. Alice begins to act helpless as well.
B)Bill knows that he will get a higher grade if he turns in a research paper that is typed rather than handwritten,but he turns in a handwritten paper anyway.
C)Connie sees her friend Maria scolded for chewing gum in class. She quickly takes her own gum out of her mouth.
D)David sees how Justin gets good grades when he works hard on his mathematics homework,but David doesn't want to work that hard.

Question 25

Which one of the following is the best example of punishment as psychologists define it?

A)After Norma spends a few minutes in the time-out room for hurting a classmate's feelings,she acts more compassionately toward that classmate in the future.
B)Kelly has been acting up in the classroom all year. Her teacher's frequent reprimands haven't made much of a difference in Kelly's behavior.
C)Leonard is a real distraction to his classmates,often burping in a way that makes other students laugh. His teacher places him in a corner where others can't hear him burping.
D)Whenever Marvin has trouble sitting still,his teacher has him run up and down the hall three times to release his pent-up energy.

Question 26

Three of the following alternatives illustrate prosocial behavior. Which one does not necessarily involve prosocial behavior?

A)Ashley lends a shoulder to cry on when Sarah breaks up with her boyfriend.
B)Bruce shares his lunch with a classmate who forgot hers.
C)Carla and Suellen cooperate on their history project.
D)Dustin asks Maura if she will let him copy her homework.

Question 27

Sharon knows that Kathy frequently completes her assignments long after their due dates. She has noticed that their teacher willingly accepts Kathy's late assignments because Kathy always has creative excuses for turning them in late. Sharon begins to do the same thing-she turns in assignments past the due date and makes up excuses for why she is late. Sharon's increase in excuse-making is due to:

A)Shaping and intrinsic reinforcement.
B)Modeling and vicarious reinforcement.
C)A mediated learning experience.
D)Distributed cognition.

Question 28

When Mr. Thompson yells at his students,they stop being so noisy. Mr. Thompson is receiving ________ for his yelling behavior.

A)intermittent reinforcement
B)negative reinforcement
C)intrinsic reinforcement
D)vicarious reinforcement

Question 29

Considering what we know about the kinds of models people are likely to imitate,we can guess that,on average,adolescent girls will be least likely to imitate:

A)Anita,a skillful auto mechanic.
B)Brianne,a pretty model in a teen magazine.
C)Claudia,the most popular girl in school.
D)Darla,a graceful dancer.

Question 30

Imagine you are a seventh-grade teacher. Below are four behaviors you might exhibit in your classroom. Considering the textbook's discussion of modeling,choose the behavior your students are least likely to imitate.

A)You show them how to estimate the price of an outfit they might want to buy.
B)You show them how to fill out their class schedule form for next year.
C)You show them how much you enjoy reading professional education journals.
D)You show them how to make a tasty fruit drink for a hot day.

Question 31

Tammy is scolded for submitting a messy math homework paper,so she tries to do her math problems more neatly after that. The scolding Tammy received is an example of:

A)Positive reinforcement.
B)Negative reinforcement.
C)Presentation punishment.
D)Removal punishment.

Question 32

When Linda wears brightly colored bell-bottom pants to school one day,her classmates tease her about them. As soon as she gets home,Linda throws the pants in the trash. Linda's being teased is an example of:

A)Presentation punishment.
B)Removal punishment.
C)Reinforcement of an incompatible behavior.
D)Negative reinforcement.

Question 33

Which one of the following is the best example of a student working for an incentive?

A)Arnold's teacher gives him a big hug after he surprises her by bringing her a cupcake from home.
B)Betsy decides not to talk in class because her teacher ridiculed her earlier in the day when she gave an incorrect answer.
C)Cyril stays out late even though he knows he will be punished when he gets home.
D)Doris is studying with the hope that she'll get a high grade on her history test.

Question 34

Ms. Jefferson promises her students special treats if they turn in their homework assignments the next day. But on the following day Ms. Jefferson forgets to bring the treats she promised. Given what psychologists have learned about what happens when consequences of learners' behaviors are inconsistent with learners' expectations,what has just happened to the students who turned in their homework assignments?

A)They have been negatively reinforced for doing so.
B)They have been punished for doing so.
C)They have been vicariously reinforced for doing so.
D)Their behavior has been extinguished.

Question 35

An incentive is likely to be an effective motivator for students only when:

A)It is described in explicit terms.
B)It will be available by the end of the same day.
C)Students believe it is within their reach.
D)Students believe that their friends will think it's a really "cool" thing to get.

Question 36

Which one of the following accurately describes the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

A)Negative reinforcement is essentially the same as punishment,but without the negative connotations that punishment has.
B)Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of behavior,whereas punishment decreases it.
C)Negative reinforcement always decreases the frequency of behavior,whereas punishment often increases it.
D)Both consequences decrease behavior,but punishment is more likely to make students angry and defiant.

Question 37

Alex loses his best friend Tyler after he tattles on Tyler at recess. Alex learns that tattling on friends is not a good idea. The loss of Tyler's friendship is an example of:

A)Positive reinforcement.
B)Negative reinforcement.
C)Presentation punishment.
D)Removal punishment.

Question 38

Which one of the following examples illustrates vicarious reinforcement?

A)Alice notices that her friend Ellen gets extra attention from the teacher when she acts helpless. Alice begins to act helpless as well.
B)Bill knows that he will get a higher grade if he turns in a research paper that is typed rather than handwritten,but he turns in a handwritten paper anyway.
C)Connie sees her friend Maria scolded for chewing gum in class. She quickly takes her own gum out of her mouth.
D)David sees how Justin gets good grades when he works hard on his mathematics homework,but David doesn't want to work that hard.

Question 39

Ms. Smythe keeps Eric after school whenever he swears in class. Even though Eric has been kept after school each day for the past three weeks,his swearing hasn't decreased at all-in fact,it has steadily increased. Given what we know about the effects of punishment on behavior,Ms. Smythe should probably conclude that:

A)Her punishment is temporarily suppressing Eric's swearing.
B)The punishment is too severe.
C)Eric's swearing will decrease eventually.
D)Staying after school is reinforcing for Eric.

Question 40

Given what psychologists have learned about modeling,why might inner-city African American students learn more from an African American model who grew up in an inner-city than from a model of a different race or background?

A)Because the African American model is more likely to behave in a gender-appropriate manner
B)Because the students will view the African American model's behavior as being relevant to themselves
C)Because the students are more likely to realize that the African American model has prestige
D)Because the students are more likely to perceive the African American model as being competent

Question 41

Which one of the following best illustrates a worldview at work?

A)When Mick falls down and sprains his ankle,Rachel says,"That must be God punishing you for calling me nasty names yesterday."
B)On his first trip to the ocean,Eli looks toward the horizon and wonders how far the water goes.
C)Daniella thinks that the earth is round only in the way that a pancake is round.
D)Ophelia is convinced that no one at school likes her.

Question 42

Which one of the following common expressions best reflects the idea of distributed cognition?

A)"A stitch in time saves nine."
B)"Two heads are better than one."
C)"Look before you leap."
D)"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."

Question 43

Three of the following are likely to give you reasonable clues about a child's cultural background and/or ethnic group membership. Which one is probably least dependable as an indicator of a child's cultural background and ethnicity?

A)A child's physical features
B)The ethnicity of a child's parents
C)The particular language that family members use at home
D)The cultural and religious activities in which a child regularly participates

Question 44

Distributed cognition can best be described as:

A)A person choosing one problem-solving strategy over other possible strategies.
B)A person trying to accomplish several different tasks simultaneously.
C)A group of people dividing up the various parts of a task that need to be done.
D)A group of people collaborating to address a task or problem.

Question 45

Three of the following are differences that teachers may find among children from some cultural backgrounds. Which behavior is probably not the result of a child's cultural background per se?

A)Some children may look down at their feet as a way of showing respect for authority figures.
B)Some children may be accustomed to "talking back" to authority figures when they disagree.
C)Some children may feel uncomfortable performing new skills in front of their teacher and peers.
D)Some children may often touch the people they are talking to.

Question 46

When we say that different cultural and ethnic groups have different worldviews,we mean that:

A)Their basic assumptions about how the world operates may be different.
B)They tend to think of their country of origin as being the best possible place in which to live.
C)They may have little understanding of geographic regions other than their own.
D)Their native language inevitably distorts how they think about their physical and social environments.

Question 47

The concept of socialization,as psychologists typically use the term,can best be described as:

A)Frequent interaction among same-age peers.
B)Frequent interaction among children of different ages.
C)A process that encourages children to think positively about themselves.
D)A process that molds children to act and think in culturally appropriate ways.

Question 48

It is essential that teachers follow through with the reinforcement they have promised for certain student behaviors. Why is such follow-through important?

A)When expected reinforcement doesn't occur,students feel punished.
B)Vicarious reinforcement alone is a relatively ineffective means of changing behavior.
C)Even high school students have difficulty delaying gratification.
D)Students learn more quickly when they are reinforced intermittently rather than continuously.

Question 49

Three of the following are possible reasons why classroom dialogues help students better understand classroom subject matter. Which one is not necessarily a benefit of classroom dialogues?

A)Students are exposed to the views of other people-views that may be more accurate than their own.
B)Students must clarify their ideas sufficiently to explain them to their classmates.
C)Students may discover weaknesses in their own thoughts and ideas about a topic.
D)Students are more likely to form visual images related to their ideas when they describe those ideas to others.

Question 50

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of distributed cognition?

A)Reginald brainstorms the various plots he might use in the short story he is writing and then eventually chooses one of them.
B)Mark,Jason,and Leanne each solve one-third of their assigned homework problems and then share their answers with the other two.
C)Rhonda watches her favorite situation comedy while simultaneously eating an apple and doing her homework.
D)Edie,Linda,and DeWayne discuss various ways they might solve a physics problem.

Question 51

As a high school music teacher plays a recording of Ferde Grofé's symphony Grand Canyon Suite for his class,he asks his students to visualize scenes that Grofé tried to capture with music: a sunrise over the Grand Canyon,a burro ride down a winding trail,a thunderstorm,and so on. This lesson could best be described as:

A)Use of vicarious reinforcement.
B)A mediated learning experience.
C)A community of learners.
D)Use of a worldview.

Question 52

Which one of the following best describes a mediated learning experience?

A)Two children argue about which of two courses of action is the right thing to do when they've hurt a classmate's feelings.
B)A teacher gives students lots of practice with various athletic skills.
C)A parent promises a reward for good behavior.
D)An adult helps a child make sense of a new situation.

Question 53

After explaining what sines and cosines are,a high school math teacher shows students how they might use these concepts in constructing large buildings. Which one of the following principles does this scenario best illustrate?

A)Learners perform more effectively when they acquire the cognitive tools of their culture.
B)Shaping helps learners acquire complex behaviors gradually over time.
C)Environmental,behavioral,and personal variables reciprocally influence one another.
D)Learners of equal ability often co-construct their knowledge and understandings.

Question 54

John is caught cheating on a homework assignment. He suffers no consequences for doing so,even though cheating is in clear violation of school policy. Given what psychologists have learned about what happens when consequences of learners' behaviors are inconsistent with learners' expectations,which one of the following predictions can we make about John's future behavior?

A)He will cheat less frequently.
B)He will cheat as frequently as he has in the past.
C)He will cheat more frequently.
D)He will complain to his parents.

Question 55

Two boys are fighting on school grounds during recess. Fighting is against school rules,and the boys know this. Even so,a teacher who sees them lets them continue to fight rather than punishing them for doing so. Judging from what psychologists say regarding what happens when expected punishments don't occur,we can predict that these boys will be:

A)Less likely to fight in the future.
B)More likely to fight in the future.
C)Likely to feel guilty when they stop fighting.
D)Likely to imitate more appropriate social behaviors in the future.

Question 56

Three of the following statements about culture are true. Which one is false?

A)Some aspects of a culture are reflected in people's behaviors (e.g.,eating habits,ceremonial rituals).
B)Some aspects of a culture are reflected in people's beliefs (e.g.,religious views,priority placed on formal education).
C)A culture tends to remain constant and unchanging despite migration,technological advances,and other changes in society.
D)Two or more subcultures may coexist within a broader culture and society.

Question 57

Which one of the following is the best example of a cognitive tool in mainstream Western culture?

A)Use of natural lighting in a studio art class
B)A jigsaw in a woodworking class
C)Use of an automatic tennis ball server during tennis practice
D)The concept of pi (π)in a geometry class

Question 58

Which one of the following statements is most accurate regarding individual achievement and competition in many Native American,Mexican American,and Southeast Asian cultures?

A)Students from these cultures may get so caught up in competition that they lose track of what's most important for them to learn.
B)Students from these cultures may compete with each other for the lowest grade in class and so may intentionally fail their tests.
C)Many students from these cultures are uncomfortable with competition and may prefer to help their classmates rather than compete with them.
D)Students from all of these cultures have a greater-than-average need to achieve individual recognition so that they can make their parents proud.

Question 59

Three of the following are typical benefits of group discussions in the classroom. Which one is not a typical benefit when learners discuss classroom material?

A)Class discussions may promote more thorough understanding of a topic.
B)Class discussions encourage students to organize their thoughts about a topic.
C)Class discussions promote more rapid learning of classroom subject matter.
D)Discussions about controversial topics encourage students to reevaluate their current opinions.

Question 60

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the idea of situated learning?

A)When Rachel learns the concept inertia,she immediately identifies a variety of phenomena the concept can explain.
B)Lucinda doesn't enjoy her history class because her teacher expects students to do nothing more than memorize lots of names,dates,and places.
C)It doesn't occur to Jennie that she can use algebra to help her solve a problem in her physics class.
D)Eleanor enjoys physical education class because she always feels more energized afterward.

Question 61

Which one of the following is an example of reinforcing an incompatible behavior as a way of eliminating an undesirable behavior?

A)Melissa is very shy and socially withdrawn. Her teacher reinforces her with a smile whenever she interacts with classmates.
B)Johnny's wisecracks have become so annoying that his teacher keeps him in from recess whenever he speaks inappropriately.
C)Mary has learned to reinforce herself whenever she gets all her spelling words correct.
D)Jerry must stay after school on days when he arrives late.

Question 62

If you wanted to give students feedback that could help them improve their behavior,which one of the following would you be least likely to do?

A)Teach them how to ask for feedback when they need it.
B)Give them at least ten suggestions for improving each assignment.
C)Also tell students what things they are doing well.
D)Communicate your confidence that they can improve.

Question 63

Rani has just moved to this country from a Middle Eastern nation where most women remain at home serving their husbands and taking care of their children. She seems confused when she is asked to perform the same school tasks as her male classmates. Rani's situation illustrates:

A)The importance of whole-class discussions.
B)The influence of counter-stereotypical information.
C)The importance of wait time.
D)Cultural mismatch.

Question 64

Which one of the following statements best characterizes how reinforcement of incompatible behavior helps reduce inappropriate behavior in the classroom?

A)When a teacher reinforces different students for different behaviors,they begin to discover which behaviors are appropriate and which are not.
B)Negative reinforcement of an incompatible behavior can ultimately reduce the frequency of that behavior.
C)An undesirable behavior will decrease when a student is reinforced for behaving in an opposite manner.
D)A teacher can reduce serious behavior problems by allowing students to engage in less serious misbehaviors.

Question 65

Which one of the following illustrates all the necessary elements of a contingency contract?

A)Mr. Osaka wants to reduce Penny's aggressive behaviors toward her classmates. He and Penny meet and discuss the problem,agreeing on the specific behaviors she should demonstrate and the reinforcers she will receive when she does so. They both sign a contract that describes the desired behaviors and the reinforcement.
B)Ms. Quineras wants Ramon to learn to stay in his seat and complete his assignments during independent seatwork time. She makes up a contract for Ramon that describes the consequence he can expect if he does not behave appropriately. They both sign it,and she follows through with the consequence when he misbehaves.
C)Mr. Sellers wants to help Trina learn to complete her homework in a more timely fashion. He has Trina write up a contract stating that she will complete her homework on time and specifying the reinforcer she would like to receive each time she does so. Both teacher and student sign the contract,and Mr. Sellers reinforces Trina as she has requested.
D)Mr. Enright develops a contract for her fifth graders that lists several classroom rules the students must agree to abide by. Each student signs the contract,thereby agreeing to follow the rules and acknowledging that there will be consequences when they disobey those rules.

Question 66

Which one of the following statements best illustrates the process of cueing acceptable behaviors?

A)"Does anyone know why Henry isn't in school today?"
B)"Thank you,everyone,for following the format I asked you to use on your math papers. It makes them easier for me to grade."
C)"Students who are sitting quietly will be the first ones to be dismissed."
D)"Who is planning to try out for the school play after school today?"

Question 67

Poor nutrition is a problem for many children who live in poverty. Which one of the following situations is most likely to be the result of poor nutrition?

A)Jill appears to have trouble remembering things and does not seem motivated to achieve in school.
B)Even though Yvonne tries hard in school and pays attention most of the time,she has difficulty learning anything abstract.
C)Lonnie learns things easily but does not work very hard in class. He is often too busy fooling around with friends to pay attention to classroom lessons.
D)Hilda has problems with mathematics but is otherwise a bright and attentive student.

Question 68

If we consider the concept of reciprocal causation,we must conclude that the quality of students' classroom experiences is influenced:

A)Primarily by what teachers do in the classroom.
B)Primarily by how students think about classroom material.
C)Both by classroom events and by what students themselves do.
D)Largely by things that have happened to students in the past.

Question 69

Which one of the following statements best reflects the concept of reciprocal causation?

A)Students are more likely to imitate a behavior for which they have seen others reinforced.
B)Learning from a model can occur only when students are capable of performing the behavior they observe.
C)Students are unlikely to exhibit a behavior for which they think they will be punished.
D)The environment affects students' behavior,but their behavior also affects the environment they experience.

Question 70

Which of the following is consistent with what is known about teaching and learning in different contexts?

A)A student who earns high grades in math can be considered "smart" and will likely earn high grades in social studies too.
B)An elementary school teacher who uses effective instructional practices in science can be equally successful if she uses the same instructional practices when teaching math.
C)The mental processes Sarah uses in her English class are equally effective when applied to her math class.
D)A science teacher who uses simulations can create a learning context that actively engages her students.

Question 71

In Mr. Medeiros's classroom,students are given play money each time they turn in an assignment; they receive additional amounts of money if the assignment is turned in on time and if it is done correctly. At the end of each week,students can use their "money" to purchase special privileges (free time,special privileges,etc.). Mr. Medeiros's approach can best be characterized as:

A)Intermittent reinforcement.
B)A group contingency.
C)A contingency contract.
D)A token economy.

Question 72

Ms. Frago has several students who are chronic misbehavers. She meets individually with each student,and together she and the student agree to a plan for improving the student's behavior and a suitable reinforcement for appropriate behavior change. Ms. Frago is using:

A)Reinforcement of an incompatible behavior.
B)A contingency contract.
C)Self-reinforcement.
D)Self-monitoring.

Question 73

In psychologists' conceptualization of reciprocal causation,which one of the following is an internal variable?

A)Alma pays close attention to lectures in her science class.
B)Last year Bree received an A in science for only mediocre achievement.
C)Curt's friend Evan will be in his science class this year.
D)Doug's science class is using state-of-the-art simulation software to study human anatomy.

Question 74

Many institutions within society influence children's learning indirectly rather than directly. Which one of the following is most likely to have an indirect,rather than direct,influence?

A)National legislation that mandates annual testing of students' basic skills and subsequent changes in "underperforming" schools
B)A new reading series instituted throughout a school district
C)A language immersion program in which native English speakers take all of their classes in French
D)A program in which all students are given personal computers with which to complete writing assignments

Question 75

Which one of the following best illustrates inclusion as special educators use the term?

A)Amy,who has dramatic mood swings,joins a regular classroom only on days when she is well-behaved.
B)Alice,who has multiple physical disabilities,has a special classroom where she and a student with severe cerebral palsy are taught.
C)Alex,who has mental retardation,is taught in a regular classroom,where his teacher and a specialist both design and deliver instruction.
D)Andrew,who is deaf,joins a regular class when it goes to art and physical education.

Question 76

Daveda has always had a knack for working with numbers. As a child,she often sought out mathematical brainteasers that would challenge her,and when she reached high school,she enrolled in the most challenging math courses in the curriculum. By twelfth grade,she was taking an advanced calculus course at a nearby university. Daveda's behavior is a good example of:

A)Situated cognition.
B)Niche-picking.
C)Intermittent reinforcement.
D)Distributed cognition.

Question 77

Loretta has been painting graffiti on the school walls after school hours. The school principal and school counselor discuss this problem and finally agree that they will try to eliminate Loretta's graffiti-painting by asking her to chair a Clean-Up-The-School (CUTS)committee,then giving her school-wide recognition for her efforts. Although the counselor does not know for sure how Loretta's committee membership will affect her graffiti-painting behavior,we know for certain that the counselor is suggesting:

A)Cueing.
B)Reinforcement of an incompatible behavior.
C)Presentation punishment.
D)Removal punishment.

Question 78

Caleb continually blurts out the answers to Mr. Karowski's questions-so much so that other students rarely have a chance to respond. Mr. Karowski decides to ignore Caleb's behavior,hoping that it will decrease if he doesn't pay attention to it. Mr. Karowski is applying the concept of _________ in his treatment of Caleb.

A)intermittent reinforcement
B)incompatible behavior
C)punishment
D)extinction

Question 79

At the beginning of the school year,Mr. Webber is concerned that Frances rarely does her independent seatwork. He begins praising Frances for each seatwork assignment she completes,and by January she is completing her assignments regularly. To make sure that the behavior continues in the years to come,what would operant conditioning theorists tell Mr. Webber to do now?

A)Praise her more often than before.
B)Praise her for only some of her completed assignments.
C)Punish Frances when she doesn't complete an assignment.
D)Switch from a social reinforcer to a concrete reinforcer.

Question 80

What is the primary purpose of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)?

A)It ensures that all public schools comply with building codes that make them accessible to students with physical disabilities.
B)It provides funding for grants to schools that demonstrate excellence in their special education programs.
C)It declares that schools have a responsibility to educate all students about the civil rights of people who have disabilities.
D)It guarantees development-enhancing educational programs and services for students who have disabilities.