Deck 12: Ex Post Facto Research

Question 1

Which of the following is not possible in ex post facto research?

A) Measurement
B) Observation
C) Random sampling
D) Random assignment
E) Selection

Answer 1

D

Question 2

A limitation of ex post facto research is that

A) null hypotheses cannot be tested.
B) random sampling is not possible.
C) behavioral observations are difficult and time consuming.
D) comparison groups cannot be used.
E) generalizations concerning cause and effect are difficult to justify.

Answer 2

E

Question 3

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.Parents' divorce has an influence on the achievement motivation of the children involved.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Answer 3

A

Question 4

Which of the following is a limitation of ex post facto research?

A) lack of control
B) lack of manipulation
C) danger of improper interpretation
D) a and b
E) All of these are true.

Question 5

An attribute variable is

A) one that subjects possess at the beginning of a study.
B) an independent variable that is extraneous to the purpose of the study.
C) directly manipulated by the investigator.
D) a and b
E) b and c

Question 6

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.The size of a discussion group affects the quality of the discussions.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 7

Which of the following is not an attribute variable?

A) Neighborhood where the subject lives
B) The honors courses the subject has taken
C) The method used to teach mathematics
D) The subject's attitudes toward mathematics

Question 8

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.Hyperactive children report enjoying sugar treats more than non-hyperactive children.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 9

Ex post facto research is less convincing than experimental research because

A) there is no control over the dependent variables.
B) differences in the independent variable were present before the start of the study.
C) differences in the dependent variable were present before the start of the study.
D) the independent variable preceded the dependent variable in time.
E) b and c

Question 10

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.Persons with seasonal affective disorder will attend fewer religious services than will persons without the disorder.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 11

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.Black and white computer graphics produce less eyestrain for visually impaired persons than do color monitors.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 12

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.Students who use a computerized problem-solving tool will perform better on word problems than students who do not use the tool.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 13

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.Teaching hyperactive students how to monitor their diets increases the probability that these students will eat healthier meals.

A) necessarily ex post facto research.
B) possible to do with experimental research.

Question 14

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.First graders whose parents read to them regularly when they were preschoolers will have higher reading achievement than those whose parents did not read to them regularly.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 15

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.Using a physical touch while giving feedback to mentally disabled children is more effective than verbal feedback alone.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 16

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.University faculty members who publish their research are evaluated higher by their students in annual reviews than those who do not publish.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 17

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.The proportion of children taught reading through a whole-language approach who will choose to read during free periods will be greater than the proportion of those taught reading through a basal reader approach.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 18

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.AIDS patients report more acts of discrimination against them than hepatitis patients.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 19

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.College newspapers contain more violent humor items than do city newspapers.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 20

Exhibit 12-1: Indicate whether the following hypotheses are necessarily ex post facto research or possible to perform with experimental research.
Refer to Exhibit 12-1.A multicultural curriculum will change children's racial attitudes.

A) necessarily ex post facto research
B) possible to do with experimental research

Question 21

One can rule out the possibility of reverse causality if one can establish that

A) X always precedes Y in time.
B) Y, always precedes X in time.
C) X may occur either before Y or after Y.
D) It is impossible to say what the time relationship between X and Y is.

Question 22

Exhibit 12-3: In a study of the membership of the most influential business persons' organization in River City, it was found that the proportion of those who are also members of the Buffalo Honorary Club (BHC) is much higher than the portion of BHC members in the general city population.One might conclude that participation in BHC activities is a positive influence in leading people to become successful businesspersons or a number of alternative hypotheses could be suggested.Choose the correct hypothesis for each question.
Refer to Exhibit 12-3.Which is a hypothesis of reverse causality?

A) The BHC stresses the qualities of being a good businessperson.
B) The BHC tends to invite only successful businesspersons to join.
C) People who are attracted to BHC are also likely to be attracted to a business career.
D) The businesspersons' organization's membership committee is biased in favor of BHC members.
E) The BHC credo is more oriented to business virtue than is the credo of other similar organizations.

Question 23

Causal-comparative research is also called ex post facto research because the investigator

A) studies relationships after they have happened.
B) studies only facts.
C) studies whole environments rather than facts.
D) actively manipulates the independent variable and studies its effect on the dependent variable.
E) actively manipulates the dependent variable and studies its effect on the independent variable.

Question 24

There is a negative relationship between the number of ice skaters in Central Park and criminal activity in the park.A possible common cause for this relationship would be that:

A) ice skaters tend to carry less money with them while skating in Central Park than park visitors during warmer weather.
B) criminals are less active during the holiday season.
C) cold weather is necessary for ice skating, and criminals are not as active in cold weather.
D) None of these are true.

Question 25

To conclude that Variable A is a cause of Variable B, you need to establish

A) a statistical relationship between A and B.
B) that Measure A occurred before Measure B.
C) that other factors did not determine B.
D) All of these are true.
E) None of these are true.

Question 26

A major difference between experimental research and ex post facto research is that

A) in experimental research there are two or more groups of subjects to be compared, while in ex post facto research one group of subjects is being studied.
B) a test of significance is applied to the data collected in an experiment, while descriptive-type statistics are used to analyze data collected in an ex post facto research.
C) in experimental research the researcher is always testing a hypothesis, while in ex post facto research hypothesis testing is not involved.
D) in experimental research manipulation of variables is possible, while in ex post facto it is not possible to manipulate the variables.

Question 27

Exhibit 12-4: An investigator found that the proportion of graduates of private high schools who are admitted to prestigious colleges is much higher than the proportion of public high school graduates whom these colleges admit.The investigator might conclude that private high schools do a better job-preparing students for college.Or, and investigator could propose many other hypotheses.Choose the correct hypothesis.
Refer to Exhibit 12-4.Which of the following is a hypothesis of common cause?

A) the same things that motivate parents and students to select private schools instead of public schools motivate them to do what is necessary to get into prestigious colleges.
B) admissions officers in prestigious colleges are biased in favor of private school graduates.
C) the milieu of private schools is more similar to college than the milieu of public schools.

Question 28

Exhibit 12-2: A study of inner-city adolescents found that the proportion of those who participate in athletics who have police records was much lower than that proportion for other adolescents in the same community.It might be concluded that participation in athletics helps adolescents avoid criminal activity.Many other hypotheses may also be suggested.Read the hypotheses (a-d) and choose the correct answer.
Refer to Exhibit 12-2.Which is a hypothesis of common cause?

A) adolescents with criminal records have difficulty getting accepted into athletic teams.
B) athletes avoid criminal records because police "look the other way" when athletes are involved in crime.
C) athletic activities keep adolescents off the street and out of crime.
D) the kind of adolescents who choose to participate in athletics are more inclined to avoid crime than are other adolescents.

Question 29

Exhibit 12-2: A study of inner-city adolescents found that the proportion of those who participate in athletics who have police records was much lower than that proportion for other adolescents in the same community.It might be concluded that participation in athletics helps adolescents avoid criminal activity.Many other hypotheses may also be suggested.Read the hypotheses (a-d) and choose the correct answer.
Refer to Exhibit 12-2.Which is a hypothesis of an alternate independent variable?

A) adolescents with criminal records have difficulty getting accepted into athletic teams.
B) athletes avoid criminal records because police "look the other way" when athletes are involved in crime.
C) athletic activities keep adolescents off the street and out of crime.
D) the kind of adolescents who choose to participate in athletics are more inclined to avoid crime than are other adolescents.

Question 30

People who wear seatbelts while driving survive more accidents than people who do not wear seatbelts.In this situation we can rule out

A) common cause.
B) reverse causality.
C) spurious results.
D) All of these are true.

Question 31

Exhibit 12-3: In a study of the membership of the most influential business persons' organization in River City, it was found that the proportion of those who are also members of the Buffalo Honorary Club (BHC) is much higher than the portion of BHC members in the general city population.One might conclude that participation in BHC activities is a positive influence in leading people to become successful businesspersons or a number of alternative hypotheses could be suggested.Choose the correct hypothesis for each question.
Refer to Exhibit 12-3.Which is a hypothesis of common cause?

A) The BHC stresses the qualities of being a good businessperson.
B) The BHC tends to invite only successful businesspersons to join.
C) People who are attracted to BHC are also likely to be attracted to a business career.
D) The businesspersons' organization's membership committee is biased in favor of BHC members.
E) The BHC credo is more oriented to business virtue than is the credo of other similar organizations.

Question 32

Exhibit 12-3: In a study of the membership of the most influential business persons' organization in River City, it was found that the proportion of those who are also members of the Buffalo Honorary Club (BHC) is much higher than the portion of BHC members in the general city population.One might conclude that participation in BHC activities is a positive influence in leading people to become successful businesspersons or a number of alternative hypotheses could be suggested.Choose the correct hypothesis for each question.
Refer to Exhibit 12-3.Which is a hypothesis about another independent variable?

A) The BHC stresses the qualities of being a good businessperson.
B) The BHC tends to invite only successful businesspersons to join.
C) People who are attracted to BHC are also likely to be attracted to a business career.
D) The businesspersons' organization's membership committee is biased in favor of BHC members.
E) The BHC credo is more oriented to business virtue than is the credo of other similar organizations.

Question 33

In an ex post facto investigation, a positive relationship was found between self-esteem (X) and reading achievement (Y).A plausible explanation for this finding is:

A) X causes Y
B) Y causes X.
C) a third variable causes both X and Y.
D) a and b
E) a, b, and c

Question 34

To achieve partial control in ex post facto research, the researcher can

A) conduct a pilot study to determine a common cause.
B) match subjects on as many extraneous variables as possible.
C) randomly assign subjects to experimental and control groups.
D) b and c

Question 35

Regression toward the mean will probably occur in a matched sample when

A) the groups are from different populations.
B) the groups are randomly assigned from the same population.
C) the sample is heterogeneous on the dependent variable.
D) the sample is homogeneous on the dependent variable.
E) the sample is heterogeneous on the independent variable.

Question 36

Exhibit 12-2: A study of inner-city adolescents found that the proportion of those who participate in athletics who have police records was much lower than that proportion for other adolescents in the same community.It might be concluded that participation in athletics helps adolescents avoid criminal activity.Many other hypotheses may also be suggested.Read the hypotheses (a-d) and choose the correct answer.
Refer to Exhibit 12-2.Which is a hypothesis of reversed causality?

A) adolescents with criminal records have difficulty getting accepted into athletic teams.
B) athletes avoid criminal records because police "look the other way" when athletes are involved in crime.
C) athletic activities keep adolescents off the street and out of crime.
D) the kind of adolescents who choose to participate in athletics are more inclined to avoid crime than are other adolescents.

Question 37

The neighbor's dogs seem to bark only when you come home from work.A cause-effect conclusion might be spurious if

A) the dogs bark when you come home on the weekend.
B) the dogs' owner comes home at the same time as you.
C) you come home because of the dogs' barking.
D) you don't find statistical significance.

Question 38

To conclude that smoking causes lung cancer, you need to establish that

A) there is a significant relation between smoking and lung cancer.
B) lung cancer always follows smoking and does not appear before smoking.
C) there are no other significant variables that influence both lung disease and cancer.
D) All of these are true.

Question 39

Ex post facto research is the only recourse when there is an

A) active dependent variable.
B) active independent variable.
C) attribute dependent variable.
D) attribute independent variable.

Question 40

Exhibit 12-4: An investigator found that the proportion of graduates of private high schools who are admitted to prestigious colleges is much higher than the proportion of public high school graduates whom these colleges admit.The investigator might conclude that private high schools do a better job-preparing students for college.Or, and investigator could propose many other hypotheses.Choose the correct hypothesis.
Refer to Exhibit 12-4.Which of the following is a hypothesis of an alternate independent variable?

A) the same things that motivate parents and students to select private schools instead of public schools motivate them to do what is necessary to get into prestigious colleges.
B) admissions officers in prestigious colleges are biased in favor of private school graduates.
C) the milieu of private schools is more similar to college than the milieu of public schools.

Question 41

In an ex post facto design, one may employ matching by

A) matching subjects from one population with subjects from another population; or
B) matching pairs within a single population.

Question 42

Exhibit 12-5: A researcher obtains chemistry achievement test scores from a group of high school students who have had laboratory experience and a group who have not.She recognizes the need to control for the variable intelligence in his study.Identify the type of control technique illustrated by the following procedures.
Refer to Exhibit 12-5.The effect of intelligence on the test scores is controlled with a statistical procedure.

A) match
B) use analysis of covariance
C) use a homogeneous group
D) add intelligence as an additional independent variable

Question 43

Matching ____ for ____ differences between groups.

A) over-adjusts, initial
B) over-adjusts, outcome
C) under-adjusts, initial
D) under-adjusts, outcome

Question 44

A researcher is studying the social effects of being learning disabled.This study is ex post facto because the

A) subjects are already known to differ on the dependent variable.
B) subjects are already known to differ on the independent variable.
C) a and b
D) None of these are true.

Question 45

Exhibit 12-5: A researcher obtains chemistry achievement test scores from a group of high school students who have had laboratory experience and a group who have not.She recognizes the need to control for the variable intelligence in his study.Identify the type of control technique illustrated by the following procedures.
Refer to Exhibit 12-5.The researcher uses only those students with IQs of 100-105.

A) match
B) use analysis of covariance
C) use a homogeneous group
D) add intelligence as an additional independent variable

Question 46

Exhibit 12-5: A researcher obtains chemistry achievement test scores from a group of high school students who have had laboratory experience and a group who have not.She recognizes the need to control for the variable intelligence in his study.Identify the type of control technique illustrated by the following procedures.
Refer to Exhibit 12-5.The researcher enters the IQ scores into her analysis to determine both main and interaction effects of IQ and lab experiences.

A) match
B) use analysis of covariance
C) use a homogeneous group
D) add intelligence as an additional independent variable

Question 47

Causal-comparative or ex post facto research is widely used because

A) such studies have greater internal validity than do quasi-experimental studies.
B) the law of the single significant independent variable can be more readily applied in ex post facto research than in experimental research.
C) it is not possible to experimentally manipulate many variables of interest .
D) Campbell and Stanley are exuberant in their praise of ex post facto research.

Question 48

Which of the strategies for partial control in an ex post facto study is most likely to limit the generalizability of the results of the study?

A) Using change scores
B) Using ANCOVA
C) Using homogeneous groups
D) Building extraneous variables into the design
E) a and b

Question 49

A researcher is exploring possible reasons for some children being put into gifted programs and other children not being entered into gifted programs.This study is ex post facto because the

A) subjects are already known to differ on the dependent variable.
B) subjects are already known to differ on the independent variable.
C) a and b
D) None of these are true.

Question 50

One way of providing some control in ex post facto research is

A) to use analysis of covariance.
B) to do a pilot study before carrying out the main research.
C) to match the subjects of the groups to be compared on as many extraneous variables as possible.
D) a and b
E) a and c

Question 51

When two matched groups are drawn from different populations, regression toward the original population means will be expected to create

A) reliable relationships.
B) valid relationships.
C) statistically significant relationships.
D) spurious relationships.

Question 52

Which of the following statements best describes the use of the two strategies mentioned above?

A) a is often useful, b is likely to lead to spurious conclusions.
B) b is often useful, a is likely to lead to spurious conclusions.
C) Both are recommended procedures.
D) Neither is a recommended procedure.

Question 53

In which of the following, is ex post facto research most appropriate? The investigator

A) has direct control of the dependent variables.
B) cannot manipulate the dependent variables.
C) cannot manipulate the independent variables.
D) can cause variations on all variables.

Question 54

The casual-comparative design is used when

A) the independent variable cannot be manipulated by the researcher.
B) it is not possible to assign subjects to different treatments.
C) the independent variable being investigated is one that already characterizes an individual.
D) variation is an independent variable occurring in the natural course of events.
E) All of these are true.

Question 55

Because of the limitations of ex post facto research, it should

A) rarely be used in educational research.
B) be interpreted with caution.
C) be used carefully by those interested in important variables which cannot be manipulated.
D) be replaced by analysis of variance techniques.
E)b and c.

Question 56

A major limitation of analysis of covariance is

A) it tends to under-adjust for initial differences.
B) it is a technically difficult procedure to perform.
C) the large number of subjects needed to obtain significant results.
D) none of these are true..

Question 57

Exhibit 12-5: A researcher obtains chemistry achievement test scores from a group of high school students who have had laboratory experience and a group who have not.She recognizes the need to control for the variable intelligence in his study.Identify the type of control technique illustrated by the following procedures.
Refer to Exhibit 12-5.The researcher selects a student from the lab condition who has the same IQ score as a non-lab student and continues this process to identify as many pairs as possible.

A) match
B) use analysis of covariance
C) use a homogeneous group
D) add intelligence as an additional independent variable

Question 58

A researcher is exploring the physiological causes of certain learning disorders.This study is ex post facto because the

A) subjects are already known to differ on the dependent variable.
B) subjects are already known to differ on the independent variable.
C) a and b
D) None of these are true.

Question 59

An investigator finds that college students who drink alcohol excessively have academic achievement that is lower than other students who do not engage in this activity.She concludes that excessive drinking of alcohol results in decreased academic achievement.Which alternative hypothesis(s) should she investigate?

A) Hypothesis of the common cause
B) Hypothesis of reverse causality
C) Hypothesis about other independent variables
D) a and c
E) All of these are true.

Question 60

Matching as a control strategy is most useful when pairing subjects from

A) different populations.
B) the same population.
C) either a or b
D) neither a nor b

Question 61

Discuss how the use of a factorial design could improve ex post facto research?

Question 62

You have a group of male high school math teachers with high scores on authoritarianism and you want to investigate the influence of authoritarianism on students' attitudes toward math.What kind of a comparison group would you choose to provide the most control in this study?

A) a group of high school teachers with low scores on authoritarianism
B) a group of high school math teachers with low scores on authoritarianism
C) a group of male high school math teachers with low scores on authoritarianism

Question 63

High school graduates have a higher average income than those who did not graduate from high school.In this situation we can rule out:

A) common cause.
B) reverse causality.
C) Both of these answers.
D) Neither of these answers

Question 64

Which of the following variables can be either an active or an attribute variable in a research study?

A) verbal aptitude
B) anxiety
C) creativity
D) reading readiness

Question 65

Exhibit 12-6: In an ex post facto study, a researcher investigated the effect of academic self-concept on school achievement.He concluded that a more positive self-concept leads to higher achievement in school.Label the following plausible alternative hypotheses as common cause, reverse causality, or other independent variables may be operating.
Refer to Exhibit 12-6.Higher school achievement leads to a more positive academic self-concept.

A) common cause
B) reverse causality
C) other independent variables may be operating

Question 66

Why is matching students from two different populations a bad strategy?

Question 67

An investigator is interested in studying teacher management behavior.He located two groups of teachers previously identified as either competent in teacher management behavior or incompetent in teacher management behavior.He found that the competent teachers' students were significantly more engaged in learning than were incompetent teachers' students.What conclusion should the investigator draw from this finding?

A) Competent teacher management behavior causes students to be more engaged in learning.
B) Competent teacher management behavior and student engagement in learning occur together.
C) To ensure that students become engaged in learning, teachers should become competent in classroom management behavior.

Question 68

Which of the alternative explanations is the easiest to investigate?

Question 69

The post hoc fallacy in research refers to

A) interpreting a relationship between two variables in an ex post facto study as a cause-effect relationship.
B) using statistical tests to locate the significant differences between groups following an analysis of covariance in ex post facto research.
C) failing to control for other independent variables that could influence the results.
D) failing to state alternative hypotheses that could account for an observed relationship.

Question 70

The most important reason for choosing an ex post facto design rather than an experimental design is when

A) random sampling is not possible.
B) random assignment must be used.
C) manipulation of the independent variable is not possible.
D) intact classroom groups must be used.
E) young children are the subjects in the research.

Question 71

How does the use of homogeneous groups influence external validity?

Question 72

Educators are interested in the variables that affect academic achievement.Which of the following variables would require an ex post facto research design to assess its effect?

A) Number of siblings in the home
B) One-parent vs.two-parent home
C) Parent(s) educational background
D) Aptitude for academic work
E) All of these are true.

Question 73

Why should you be cautious in interpreting ex post facto research?

Question 74

Increasing sample size will

A) enhance the credibility of ex post facto research.
B) lessen the credibility of ex post facto research.
C) not change the credibility.

Question 75

If you have a choice between investigating the same question with ex post facto research or with experimental research choose

A) ex post facto research.
B) experimental research.

Question 76

Exhibit 12-6: In an ex post facto study, a researcher investigated the effect of academic self-concept on school achievement.He concluded that a more positive self-concept leads to higher achievement in school.Label the following plausible alternative hypotheses as common cause, reverse causality, or other independent variables may be operating.
Refer to Exhibit 12-6.Teachers are impressed by students with positive self-concept and tend to overrate their achievement.

A) common cause
B) reverse causality
C) other independent variables may be operating

Question 77

Why is matching students from a single population a useful strategy?

Question 78

The experimental approach to research starts with groups that are ____ on significant variables, while the ex post facto approach starts with groups that are ____ on significant variables.

A) different; equivalent
B) equivalent; different

Question 79

Explain and give an example of how the use of homogeneous groups can influence internal validity?

Question 80

Exhibit 12-6: In an ex post facto study, a researcher investigated the effect of academic self-concept on school achievement.He concluded that a more positive self-concept leads to higher achievement in school.Label the following plausible alternative hypotheses as common cause, reverse causality, or other independent variables may be operating.
Refer to Exhibit 12-6.Another variable such as academic aptitude results in both a positive academic self-concept and high achievement in school.

A) common cause
B) reverse causality
C) other independent variables may be operating