Deck 14: Empirical Reasoning

Question 1

Which of the following statements about empirical reasoning is true?
(a) It is the same as comparative reasoning.
(b) It is useful for determining what our beliefs imply.
(c) It is the same as ideological reasoning.
(d) It seeks evidence to support or disconfirm hypotheses.

Answer 1

D

Question 2

Saying that empirical reasoning is open to independent verification means that ________.
(a) the data and results of statistical tests can be scrutinized by the entire scientific community
(b) the data and results of statistical tests can be published
(c) scientific findings can be adjusted to accommodate sincere religious convictions
(d) scientific findings often must be corrected by independent non-scientists

Answer 2

A

Question 3

Which mode of reasoning comes into play when seeking to explain and to predict natural phenomena?
(a) empirical
(b) comparative
(c) pragmatic
(d) ideological

Answer 3

A

Question 4

Which of the following primarily depends upon empirical reasoning?
(a) To those who would dismiss evolution as "only a theory," The National Center for Science Education Web site proposes this analogy: "Evolution is only a theory in the same way that Universal Gravity is only a theory."
(b) No animals capable of tool making, social interaction, and language deserve to be put in zoos or used for medical experiments. It follows that our treatment of chimpanzees is a deplorable and unethical violation of their basic rights.
(c) I know several people who believe that it is OK to cheat on their taxes just a little bit. Like not reporting all their cash income. Or, by padding their business travel expenses.
(d) The data show that the hypothesis that climate change is unrelated to human behavior is false.

Question 5

When a criminal investigator gathers evidence that demonstrates that the suspect could not have committed the crime, the investigator is engaged in what kind of reasoning?
(a) comparative
(b) ideological
(c) empirical
(d) causal
(e) correlational

Question 6

If the advantage of creating specific conditions in the lab is that potential influences of extraneous factors can be reduced, what is the drawback of doing that?
(a) It is more expensive than doing field work.
(b) Conditions in the field are radically different.
(c) It makes the findings more justified because of the controls put in place in the lab.
(d) It makes the findings less generalizable because fewer controls are in place in the field.

Question 7

Which of the following primarily depends upon empirical reasoning?
(a) Discovering the extent to which a star's gravity can warp light from a pulsar.
(b) Randolph knows that John Glenn was a senator. John Glenn was an astronaut. Therefore Randolph knows that John Glenn was an astronaut.
(c) The animal rights activists defended themselves by saying: "We did not steal any animals from the lab. We rescued those monkeys because they were the helpless victims of torture."
(d) Everyone loves ice cream. So don't try to tell me that Louis doesn't want to eat his ice cream.

Question 8

When applied to empirical reasoning the Test of Relevance is partly addressed by the ________.
(a) citation of credible experts
(b) accuracy of the measurements made and the descriptions of the investigatory conditions
(c) mutual trust and scientific consensus achieved at professional meetings
(d) reliance on comparative reasoning to suggest productive models and hypotheses
(e) the identification of relevant factors, which is part of the scientific research design

Question 9

Characterizing empirical reasoning as self-corrective means that the conclusions reached using empirical reasoning ________.
(a) can be revised in the light of new findings
(b) are not reliable
(c) cannot be mistaken
(d) can be corrected to fit with political or religious beliefs

Question 10

Suppose that a scientific research team was able to show empirically that there was less than 1 chance in 10,000 that its findings were mistaken. In such a case we could say that the findings ________.
(a) were certainly true
(b) were very probably true
(c) had 50/50 chance of being true
(d) open to reasonable doubt

Question 11

When applied to empirical reasoning the Test of the Truthfulness of the Premises is partly ensured by the ________.
(a) citation of credible experts
(b) accuracy of the measurements made and the descriptions of the investigatory conditions
(c) mutual trust and scientific consensus achieved at professional meetings
(d) reliance on comparative reasoning to suggest productive models and hypotheses
(e) the use of statistical analyses and the steps in the scientific research design

Question 12

When engaging in empirical reasoning, the argument maker ________.
(a) must have reasons to back up the ideological premises
(b) allows experts to attempt to sway his or her opinion
(c) takes the hypothesis on faith
(d) strives to be exhaustively systematic

Question 13

The hypothesis that two phenomena are unrelated except perhaps by random chance is called ________.
(a) scientific foolishness
(b) the randomness conjecture
(c) the affirmation of chance
(d) the null hypothesis

Question 14

The peer review process is designed to screen out research that violates ________.
(a) one or more of the four tests of the worthiness of an argument.
(b) the truths embodied in the Constitution and other legal documents.
(c) the religious faith of the scientists and the community at large.
(d) one or more of rules of professional scientific conduct.
(e) the economic interests of the organization that is sponsoring the research.

Question 15

What is another term for empirical reasoning?
(a) pro-and-con thinking
(b) give-and-take thinking
(c) this-is-like-that thinking
(d) scientific thinking
(e) top-down thinking

Question 16

When applied to empirical reasoning the Test of Logical Strength is partly addressed by the ________.
(a) citation of credible experts
(b) accuracy of the measurements made and the descriptions of the investigatory conditions
(c) mutual trust and scientific consensus achieved at professional meetings
(d) reliance on comparative reasoning to suggest productive models and hypotheses
(e) the use of statistical analyses and the steps in the scientific research design

Question 17

Characterizing empirical reasoning as inductive means that ________.
(a) the conclusions of empirical arguments are presented as certain
(b) the premises of empirical arguments are presented as true
(c) the persuasiveness of empirical reasoning is not open to doubt
(d) the conclusions reached by empirical reasoning are probabilistic

Question 18

After one scientist publishes the findings of an empirical investigation, other investigators may be expected to ________.
(a) vote on whether they agree or disagree with the findings
(b) attempt to replicate the scientific findings independently
(c) use metaphors and analogies to describe how they feel about the work
(d) cite authoritative sources to argue that the findings cannot possibly be correct

Question 19

Empirical reasoning is a process of thinking that ________.
(a) begins with an expression of core values or beliefs
(b) begins with a hypothesis that is then tested scientifically
(c) begins with a helpful comparison that is simple and familiar
(d) begins with the evaluation of the speaker's credibility

Question 20

Which of the following does not primarily depend upon empirical reasoning?
(a) The discovery that Ebola, although highly contagious, could be medically managed.
(b) The discovery that talking, reading, and singing to children from their earliest years is positively correlated with higher levels of academic success as the children grow up.
(c) The inference that because empirical reasoning can never yield absolute certainty it is not capable of demonstrating the meaning of life.
(d) The development of genetically modified plants and animals.

Question 21

What is the scientific investigator's thinking and argument making responsibility when conducting the appropriate analyses of the data?

Question 22

The null hypothesis is an empirically testable claim that two phenomena are entirely unrelated except perhaps by __________________.

Question 23

What capacity gives scientific (empirical) reasoning an advantage over comparative reasoning and ideological reasoning?

Question 24

What is the scientific investigator's thinking and argument making responsibility when critiquing his or her own scientific findings?

Question 25

As Dallas County Judge Clay Jenkins said, science is "what separates us from other _________."

Question 26

The hypotheses, which we seek to support or to disconfirm by empirical reasoning are intended to __________ and to predict phenomena.

Question 27

Why does empirical inquiry proceed by disconfirmation-looking for what is not the case? Why not focus primarily, if not exclusively, on confirmation?

Question 28

Replication studies (do overs) are used to verify that the observations and findings reported by the original scientist can be duplicated by other scientists working independently.

Question 29

What is the scientific investigator's thinking and argument making responsibility when making each factor measurable?

Question 30

What is the scientific investigator's thinking and argument making responsibility when forming a hypothesis that describes what we can expect to happen under certain conditions?

Question 31

The empirical reasoning process of gathering data and applying the appropriate analyses in order to discover whether a hypothesis is false is called ___________________.

Question 32

What should happen if the empirical reasoning behind the research plan fails the test of non-circularity?

Question 33

Science is complex. Errors can occur. Does this mean that we should not trust published research?

Question 34

Empirical reasoning is used when we want to explain, predict, or control what natural phenomena? How does this work?

Question 35

Explain why demonstrating that the null hypothesis is false does not make the opposite true.

Question 36

Scientific inquiry, when executed by fair-minded, truth-seeking people with strong critical thinking skills and a positive critical thinking mindset, is exhaustively systematic and unwaveringly honest.

Question 37

Empirical reasoning is fundamentally inductive, _______________, and open to scrutiny and independent verification by the entire scientific community.

Question 38

What is the purpose of running a pilot project when engaging in scientific inquiry?

Question 39

All things considered, what are the relative strengths and weaknesses of comparative, ideological, and empirical reasoning?

Question 40

Our capacity to anticipate what comes next and then to devise ways to affect the outcomes of events and processes is absolutely fundamental to our survival as a species and to our current planetary dominance. We look for cause-and-effect relationships to explain, and hence to predict and control.