Deck 7: Memory

Question 1

The "cognitive revolution" in psychology began in the:

A)1890s.
B)1930s.
C)1950s.
D)1980s.

Answer 1

1950s.

Question 2

"Kitty sleep," 2-year-old Isabella remarks. Isabella is referring to her pet at the _____ level of the concept hierarchy.

A)ordinate
B)basic
C)subordinate
D)superordinate

Answer 2

basic

Question 3

With respect to the concept hierarchy, children generally learn to name the _____ level first.

A)subordinate
B)superordinate
C)ordinate
D)basic

Answer 3

basic

Question 4

_____ concepts are defined by precise rules.

A)Formal
B)Natural
C)Prototypical
D)Superordinate

Question 5

Formal concepts are:

A)defined by a prototype.
B)more common than natural concepts.
C)defined by specific rules.
D)learned through everyday experience.

Question 6

Mental representations of categories of objects, situations, or ideas that share common features are called:

A)prototypes.
B)concepts.
C)heuristics.
D)images.

Question 7

Consider nonalcoholic beverages. Which alternative correctly matches a level of the concept hierarchy with an example?

A)subordinate - beverage
B)basic - ginger ale
C)superordinate - soft drink
D)subordinate - cola

Question 8

Cognition was relatively neglected in psychology:

A)before 1930.
B)between 1930 and 1950.
C)until 1950.
D)from 1950 until the 1970s.

Question 9

With respect to the concept hierarchy, the _____ level is used MOST often to identify objects in everyday life.

A)superordinate
B)ordinate
C)basic
D)subordinate

Question 10

"Gin rummy, games, cards." With reference to the concept hierarchy, this phrase denotes the _____, _____, and _____ levels, respectively.

A)subordinate; superordinate; basic
B)basic; subordinate; superordinate
C)basic; superordinate; subordinate
D)subordinate; basic; superordinate

Question 11

"I adopted a third cat," Leonie reports. "Is it another Siamese?" Salvatore asks. With respect to the concept hierarchy, Leonie made reference to the _____, whereas Salvatore referred to the _____ level.

A)basic; subordinate
B)basic; superordinate
C)superordinate; basic
D)superordinate; subordinate

Question 12

The textbook states that early psychologists often used introspection to study cognition. These psychologists probably reflected the _____ perspective.

A)psychodynamic
B)behaviorist
C)humanist
D)structuralist

Question 13

Specific instances of a category are represented at the _____ level of the concept hierarchy.

A)subordinate
B)basic
C)ordinate
D)superordinate

Question 14

The _____ level is the broadest or topmost level of the concept hierarchy.

A)subordinate
B)superordinate
C)ordinate
D)basic

Question 15

"I need some Palmolive," Loretta remarks upon entering a large, unfamiliar discount store. "Excuse me. Could you point me to the dish liquid?" her friend asks a nearby sales associate. "Aisle 9, in household cleaners," the associate responds. Loretta referred to the _____ level in the concept hierarchy. Her friend referenced the _____ level. The associate identified the _____ level.

A)subordinate; superordinate; basic
B)superordinate; subordinate; basic
C)subordinate; basic; superordinate
D)superordinate; basic; subordinate

Question 16

Which of the following is MOST nearly synonymous with the term "concept" as it is used by cognitive psychologists?

A)idea
B)relationship
C)category
D)discovery

Question 17

Obtaining, converting, and using knowledge is called:

A)cognition.
B)thinking.
C)introspection.
D)rumination.

Question 18

Which sequence correctly arranges the levels of the concept hierarchy from the broadest to the most specific?

A)superordinate > subordinate > basic
B)basic > subordinate > superordinate
C)basic > superordinate > subordinate
D)superordinate > basic > subordinate

Question 19

Which statement BEST expresses the relationship between cognition and thinking?

A)Cognition is the same thing as thinking.
B)Cognition is a type of thinking.
C)Thinking is a type of cognition.
D)Cognition and thinking are distinct processes.

Question 20

"Would you like a beverage? Maybe some tea?" "I could go for cup of Earl Grey." In order, this conversation mentions the _____, _____, and _____ levels of the concept hierarchy, respectively.

A)subordinate; superordinate; basic
B)superordinate; subordinate; basic
C)subordinate: basic; superordinate
D)superordinate; basic; subordinate

Question 21

After a stroke, increased efficiency of synaptic connections can aid recovery by facilitating learning and memory formation. Psychologists use the term _____ to refer to this increase in the efficiency of neural connections.

A)consolidation
B)neurogenesis
C)elaboration
D)long-term potentiation

Question 22

Which should be identified more quickly as a fruit, an orange or an olive? Why?

A)An orange should be identified as a fruit more quickly because an orange is more prototypical.
B)An olive should be identified as a fruit more quickly because an olive is more distinctive.
C)An orange should be identified as a fruit more quickly because an orange is more distinctive.
D)An olive should be identified as a fruit more quickly because an olive is more prototypical.

Question 23

Which of these is a natural concept?

A)octagon
B)identical twin
C)prime number
D)sport

Question 24

Which is MOST likely the prototype for the concept "fruit"?

A)persimmon
B)apple
C)blueberry
D)coconut

Question 25

Triangles are three-sided polygons whose interior angles sum to 180 degrees. Based on this definition, "triangle" is a _____ concept.

A)natural
B)superordinate
C)formal
D)prototypical

Question 26

The textbook relates the story of Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor, a Harvard neuroscientist who suffered a stroke. The stroke affected her _____ lobe, a brain region associated with processing emotions, making plans, and controlling impulses.

A)frontal
B)parietal
C)temporal
D)occipital

Question 27

A prototype is the:

A)most representative example of a concept.
B)most distinctive example of a concept.
C)first example of a concept that one encounters.
D)example that best fits the rules defining a concept.

Question 28

Research by _____ supports the idea that mental imagery preserves the perceptual and physical operations people perform on actual objects.

A)Rosch and Mervin (1975)
B)Shepard and Metzler (1971)
C)Kosslyn, Ball, and Reiser (1978)
D)Shepard and Metzler (1971) and by Kosslyn, Ball, and Reiser (1978)

Question 29

Which concept is correctly classified?

A)prime number - natural
B)pentagon - natural
C)vegetable - natural
D)appliance - formal

Question 30

When one tries to solve a problem by using a variety of strategies and eliminating those that do not work, one is using:

A)an algorithm.
B)insight.
C)trial and error.
D)a heuristic.

Question 31

Consider the concepts "game" and "rational number." Which of these is a formal concept?

A)"Game" is a formal concept.
B)"Rational number" is a formal concept.
C)"Rational number" is a natural concept.
D)Both "game" and "rational number" are formal concepts.

Question 32

Dr. Randazza shows participants a stylized map of a fictitious city. The map includes landmarks, such as a post office, a library, a shopping mall, a bus depot, and an airport. Some of the landmarks are close together, such as the library and the post office. Others are far apart, such as the airport and the shopping mall. Dr. Randazza removes the map. Participants are asked to imagine walking from one landmark to another, either a nearby one or a more distant one. Participants press a key when they've reached the destination in their minds. What should Dr. Randazza find? What would such a result say about mental imagery?

A)Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant landmarks as between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual actions people perform with respect to real objects.
B)Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant landmarks as between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions people perform with respect to real objects.
C)Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant landmarks than between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual actions people perform with respect to real objects.
D)Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant landmarks than between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions people perform with respect to real objects.

Question 33

Trial and error is MOST useful as a problem solving tactic when:

A)the stakes are high.
B)the solution is relatively obvious.
C)there are a large number of possible solutions.
D)the stakes are relatively low

Question 34

Suppose a researcher uses strong magnets to track changes in blood oxygen levels across the brain when participants are viewing a scene and also when they are imagining the scene. The ______ variable in this study is ______.

A)independent; changes in blood oxygen levels
B)experimental; whether participants imagined or viewed a scene
C)control; whether participants imagined or viewed a scene
D)dependent; changes in blood oxygen levels

Question 35

The textbook relates the story of Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor, a Harvard neuroscientist who suffered a stroke. After the stroke, the healing of Jill's brain began with changes to neurons. The general term for these kinds of changes is:

A)neuroadaptation.
B)neuroplasticity.
C)synaptogenesis.
D)neurogenesis.

Question 36

CT scans:

A)detect abnormalities, such as tumors.
B)provide information about normal cognitive functioning.
C)may be used to treat psychological disorders.
D)detect abnormalities and provide information about normal functioning.

Question 37

Thinking in the service of a goal is called:

A)creativity.
B)cognition.
C)problem solving.
D)mental representation.

Question 38

The classic study of mental rotation was conducted by:

A)Rosch and Mervin (1975).
B)Shepard and Metzler (1971).
C)Kosslyn, Ball, and Reiser (1978).
D)Kahneman and Tversky (1973).

Question 39

Suppose a researcher uses strong magnets to track changes in blood oxygen levels across the brain when participants are viewing a scene and also when they are imagining the scene. Which device is the researcher MOST likely using?

A)EEG
B)PET
C)fMRI
D)CAT

Question 40

_____ concepts are defined by general characteristics.

A)Formal
B)Natural
C)Artificial
D)Basic

Question 41

Broad rules of thumb for solving problems are called:

A)heuristics.
B)algorithms.
C)insights.
D)subgoals.

Question 42

Kent and Kirsten are both trying to reduce their consumer debt. Kent decides to pay the highest-interest debts first and freeze credit-card spending. Kirsten simply pays her largest debt first, because this would seem to be the fastest way to move her debt as close to zero as possible. Kent's plan reflects the problem-solving strategy of _____. Kirsten's method illustrates the strategy of _____.

A)forming subgoals; trial and error
B)means-end analysis; forming subgoals
C)trial and error; means-end analysis
D)forming subgoals; means-end analysis

Question 43

"Solve: 2² + 5 = x - 9," states a problem in an eighth-grade algebra text. This problem's _____ state is 2² + 5 = x - 9; it is BEST solved through _____.

A)goal; an algorithm
B)goal; trial and error
C)initial; an algorithm
D)initial; trial and error

Question 44

"Express as an improper fraction: 4 7/8," states a problem in a fifth-grade arithmetic text. This problem is BEST solved through:

A)trial and error.
B)insight.
C)an algorithm.
D)a heuristic.

Question 45

Renee has an idea of how she wants her living room to look. She's moving furniture, paintings, and accessories to get closer and closer to that picture in her head. Renee is using _____ to reach her goal.

A)trial and error
B)means-end analysis
C)subgoals
D)insight

Question 46

"When you have trouble in a class, try outlining the book in your own words." What is this general "rule of thumb" for solving a common academic problem called?

A)a heuristic
B)a hierarchy
C)a mental set
D)an algorithm

Question 47

One advantage of using heuristics is that heuristics:

A)present a clearly defined solution to a problem.
B)are usually efficient.
C)are guaranteed to result in a correct solution.
D)result in a single solution to a problem.

Question 48

A political science professor attempts to facilitate her students' completion of a term paper assignment by requiring them to first submit a topic statement, then a list of references, then a draft of the introduction, and then, finally, the completed paper. The professor is encouraging her students to use the problem-solving strategy of:

A)trial and error.
B)means-end analysis.
C)subgoals.
D)insight.

Question 49

Lori and Monica are looking at the cans of coffee on display at a local supermarket. They are trying to decide which of two different-sized cans is a better buy. Lori attempts to divide the price of each can by the number of ounces of coffee each contains. Monica suggests that "the larger size is usually a better buy." Lori is using a(n) _____; Monica is using a(n) ______.

A)heuristic; algorithm
B)algorithm; heuristic
C)prototype; algorithm
D)heuristic; prototype

Question 50

Which statement about heuristics is True?

A)Heuristics always lead to the correct solution of a problem.
B)Heuristics are a slower way to solve problems than are other strategies.
C)Heuristics represent commonly used approaches to the solution of a problem.
D)Heuristics are used as problem-solving strategies by computers, but not by humans.

Question 51

Matt picks up a pamphlet at the university counseling center titled How to Succeed at College Course Work. What kinds of problem-solving strategies are MOST likely offered in this pamphlet?

A)algorithms
B)insights
C)mental sets
D)heuristics

Question 52

When one solves a crossword puzzle using certain mental shortcuts, he or she is using cognitive strategies psychologists call:

A)algorithms.
B)mental sets.
C)heuristics.
D)insights.

Question 53

Common heuristics include:

A)means-end analysis.
B)subgoals.
C)both means-end analysis and subgoals.
D)neither means-end analysis nor subgoals.

Question 54

Which item MOST likely makes use of heuristics?

A)a chemical equation for the synthesis of sulfuric acid
B)a recipe for making cookies on the back of a box of cornflakes
C)an article by a Nobel Prize winner entitled "How to Succeed in Science"
D)a computer program for keeping track of inventory at a department store

Question 55

A rule that guarantees the solution to a problem when it is correctly applied is called a(n):

A)concept.
B)heuristic.
C)algorithm.
D)morpheme.

Question 56

A high school physics teacher reassures his class that no matter how confusing this week's word problems appear, they all may be solved quite handily through the use of the formula F = MA. The teacher has offered his students a(n):

A)algorithm.
B)heuristic.
C)insight.
D)analogy.

Question 57

If algorithms guarantee problem solutions, why do people ever use heuristics, which do not?

A)Sometimes no algorithm is available to solve a particular problem.
B)Heuristics often require less time and effort to apply than do algorithms.
C)Heuristics produce successful problem solutions with sufficient frequency to justify their use.
D)People use heuristics for all these reasons.

Question 58

Which word BEST captures the meaning of the term "heuristic," as cognitive psychologists use it?

A)recipe
B)formula
C)strategy
D)program

Question 59

"Convert to a mixed numeral: 18/5," states a problem in a fifth-grade arithmetic text. This problem's _____ state is 3 3/5; it may be solved through a(n) _____.

A)goal; algorithm
B)goal; heuristic
C)initial; algorithm
D)initial; heuristic

Question 60

Frank lost a contact lens in his kitchen; he searches for it by examining each linoleum tile in turn to see if the lens is contained within the square. Gemma lost a lens in her kitchen; she looks for it near the base of the fridge and around the stove because these are the two appliances she remembers using when she was last in the kitchen. Which of these individuals is using a heuristic?

A)Only Frank is using a heuristic.
B)Only Gemma is using a heuristic.
C)Both Frank and Gemma are using heuristics.
D)Neither Frank nor Gemma is using a heuristic.

Question 61

In one study, Subramaniam and her colleagues found that participants who watched a comedy film performed better on an insight puzzle than did participants who watched dull or frightening films. The type of film participants watched is a(n) _____ variable in this study.

A)control
B)dependent
C)experimental
D)independent

Question 62

Making several minor household repairs, Alyssa uses a shoe as a hammer and a butter knife as a screwdriver. Which of the following statements BEST characterizes Alyssa's problem solving?

A)She is constrained by a powerful mental set.
B)She is taking advantage of the availability heuristic.
C)She is not constrained by functional fixedness.
D)She is forming subgoals.

Question 63

Which problem-solving approach is correctly matched with its definition?

A)means-end analysis - dividing a problem into smaller, more manageable tasks
B)using subgoals - discovering a problem's solution in a sudden moment of clarity
C)trial and error - solving a problem by making a series of attempts and eliminating unsuccessful ones
D)insight - progressively reducing the discrepancy between a problem's current state and the goal state

Question 64

Joanne will not go out at night because she hears from her local news station about the large number of muggings and robberies that occur in her city. However, crime in Joanne's city has actually gone down in the past few years. To which bias is Joanne falling victim?

A)the representativeness heuristic
B)functional fixedness
C)the availability heuristic
D)a mental set

Question 65

Last week, Mike heard about five separate airplane crashes on the news. Even though, overall, motorcycle accidents account for more accidents than plane crashes do, Mike decides to ride his motorcycle from Philadelphia to Atlanta instead of flying. Which bias is reflected in Mike's decision?

A)the confirmation bias
B)the availability heuristic
C)the representativeness heuristic
D)the framing effect

Question 66

"You always clam up when I ask you what's wrong," Iris tells her boyfriend. Iris is probably making this frequency judgment because she can remember a few times that her boyfriend wouldn't tell her what was bothering him. Iris is using the _______ heuristic.

A)representativeness
B)framing
C)means-end
D)availability

Question 67

Zelma is asked to think of all the words she can, beginning with the letters "squ," as in "squeak." Later she is given a fill-in-the-blank task on which one of the items is "s _ _ o n g." Zelma keeps trying to make "squong" a word, and has trouble thinking of the common word "strong." Zelma's ability to solve this problem has been hampered by:

A)a mental set.
B)confirmation bias.
C)functional fixedness.
D)an algorithm.

Question 68

A decision-making strategy in which one uses the ease with which examples come to mind as the basis for judging how common events really are is called the _____ heuristic.

A)frequency
B)availability
C)representativeness
D)familiarity

Question 69

A jeweler is unable to fix a particular mounting in a ring because she can imagine only the conventional uses for her tools. This situation demonstrates:

A)insight.
B)trial and error.
C)algorithmic thinking.
D)functional fixedness.

Question 70

Which impediment to effective problem solving is correctly matched with its definition?

A)functional fixedness - the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
B)mental set - the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its customary use
C)Neither functional fixedness nor mental set is correctly defined.
D)Both functional fixedness and mental set are correctly defined.

Question 71

The text's discussion of insight suggests that its key characteristic is its:

A)suddenness.
B)uniqueness.
C)brevity.
D)complexity.

Question 72

Henry's dog, Sparky, has been rolling in the mud. Henry must bathe Sparky before the dog gets mud all over the carpet. However, Henry is unable to find the plug for the tub. Sitting on the counter right beside the tub is a fifty-cent piece. In his frustration, Henry fails to see that the coin could be used as an emergency plug for the tub. What happened to Henry?

A)He took a heuristic approach.
B)He fell prey to the confirmation bias.
C)He suffered from functional fixedness.
D)He employed representational thought.

Question 73

_____ is defined as a sudden understanding of a problem's solution.

A)Convergent thinking
B)Divergent thinking
C)Creativity
D)Insight

Question 74

Stereotypes spring to mind easily. Therefore, people sometimes use them to judge the frequency of certain events, such as crimes in a given neighborhood. This example BEST describes the use of the _____ heuristic.

A)framing
B)representativeness
C)availability
D)familiarity

Question 75

When one tries to solve a problem, one brings to the situation all sorts of assumptions, habits of mind, and pre-existing knowledge and expectations. All these elements together make up one's usual problem-solving strategy, which is called a(n):

A)confirmation bias.
B)mental set.
C)solution frame.
D)algorithm.

Question 76

The study of insight is associated with the German psychologist ____; he studied problem solving among _____.

A)Kohler; chimpanzees
B)Kohler; humans
C)Wundt; cats
D)Wundt; humans

Question 77

"Eureka! I've got it!" That sudden awareness of the path toward a problem's solution is called:

A)creativity.
B)cognition.
C)insight.
D)fluency.

Question 78

Katie is weighing several job offers. She gives each job a score on several criteria, then sums the scores. Katie is using the _____ approach to make her decision.

A)additive model
B)single feature
C)framing
D)representativeness

Question 79

Which of the following statements is False?

A)Individualistic cultures generally favor action-oriented problem solving strategies
B)People from collectivist cultures tend to be more careful when generating solutions to problems.
C)Research shows that Americans are the world's most "action-oriented" problem solvers.
D)Cultures vary in the extent to which they avoid uncertainty.

Question 80

When people are asked which is more common, death by homicide or death by stroke, they often choose homicide because they hear about more murders than they do about strokes. In this instance, people are led astray in their judgments by:

A)the representativeness heuristic.
B)the framing effect.
C)a mental set.
D)the availability heuristic.